Social Psychology Notes

Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ Learning objectives ⋮ 1. Describe the diverse topics that social psychology seeks to understand. 4. Explain the role of theory in social psychological research. Topics Studied in Social Psychology ⋮ 1. Social psychology examines »behaviour«, »thoughts«, and »feelings« in social contexts, focusing on how people relate to one The Role of Theory in Social Psychological Research ⋮ 1. A »theory« in social psychology provides a framework for organizing observations and understanding patterns of behaviour. It explains phenomena and helps researchers make predictions another. It emphasizes understanding human experiences in group settings. ⋮ 2. Topics include »romantic love«, »body language«, »sexism«, and »advertising«, which blend both applied research and pure science. ⋮ 3. Social psychology aims to explain the »causes of social behaviour« through five factors: behaviour of others, cognitive about future events. ⋮ 2. Theories guide research by generating testable hypotheses which are used to conduct experiments and collect data that can support or challenge the theory. ⋮ 3. Theories in social psychology must be parsimonious, meaning they explain the most with the fewest assumptions, and falsifiable, meaning they can be disproven if evidence contradicts them. ⋮ 4. As more research is conducted, theories may be refined or adjusted to better account for new findings, demonstrating the emerged as a distinct field after World War I, processes, physical environment, biological factors, and cultural context. ⋮ 4. Branscombe and Baron (2017) highlight two trends: the growing role of »cognition« in understanding behaviour and the increasing application of research to solve real-world problems. ⋮ 5. Social psychology with research on attitude change and social norms gaining prominence in the 1930s. ⋮ 6. By the 1960s, social psychology became a formal undergraduate course in Canadian universities, and its definition has remained largely unchanged since then. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 5 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section covers key areas of social psychology, including its historical rise and modern evolving nature of scientific understanding in social psychology. ⋮ 5. »Social Identity Theory« explains how individuals define themselves based on group membership, suggesting that a person’s sense of self can be influenced by social groups. ⋮ 6. »Cognitive Dissonance Theory« posits that individuals experience discomfort when their attitudes and behaviours are inconsistent, prompting them to adjust either to reduce the dissonance. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 3 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section includes the role of theory in generating hypotheses, and specific theories like social identity theory and cognitive dissonance theory. (1. 40:2; 2. 40:3; 3. 40:4; 4. 40:4; 5. 2. Describe the major trends in contemporary social psychology. 5. Describe some of the ethical issues in social psychological research. importance of thought processes and emotions Trends in Contemporary Social Psychology ⋮ 1. One major trend is the growing recognition of »cognition« in shaping behaviour. Social psychology now emphasizes the in influencing people’s actions. ⋮ 2. Before the 1970s, North American psychology focused mostly on observable behaviour, viewing cognition as too elusive to study scientifically, marking a significant shift in research approaches. ⋮ 3. Another trend is applying social psychological research to address real-life issues such as »romantic love«, »body language«, and »sexism«, a shift that gained traction in the mid-1960s. ⋮ 4. These trends reflect the increasing practical relevance of social psychology, which bridges the gap between theoretical inquiry and applied solutions. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 2 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section covers the key trends in social psychology: the shift towards cognition and its application in solving real-world problems. (1. 36:3; 2. 36:3; 3. 37:1; 4. 36:4) Information on smaller emerging trends was omitted. 3. Describe the basic methods of social psychological research. Ethical Issues in Social Psychological Research ⋮ 1. One ethical issue in social psychology is the use of »deception«, where participants are misled to prevent them from altering their behaviour. This is used to obtain more valid results, but it raises concerns about participant rights. ⋮ 2. To counter the effects of deception, researchers are required to conduct »debriefing«, where they explain the study’s true purpose afterward and ensure participants’ well-being is restored. ⋮ 3. Another critical issue is »informed consent«, meaning participants must be fully informed about the study and agree to participate voluntarily. They must be aware of their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. ⋮ 4. Researchers must also consider potential psychological harm, ensuring they minimize any stress, anxiety, or other negative emotions caused by the study. The welfare of participants must always take priority. 5. »Privacy and confidentiality« are essential ethical concerns. Researchers must protect participants’ personal information and ensure that their data is used only for the purpose of the study, maintaining strict confidentiality throughout. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 4 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section covers major ethical issues such as deception, debriefing, informed consent, privacy, and minimizing harm. (1. 42:2; 2. 42:4; 3. 42:4; Basic Methods of S'ocial Psychological Research ⋮ 1. The »controlled experiment« is the primary method used in social psychology to establish cause-and-effect relationships. It involves manipulating an independent variable and observing changes in a dependent variable, while controlling other factors. ⋮ 2. In complex experiments, multiple independent variables can be tested to discover interactions between them, revealing how different factors simultaneously influence social behaviour. ⋮ 3. When direct experimentation is not feasible, the »correlational method« is used to measure whether two or more variables occur together. However, this method cannot determine causality —it only shows relationships between variables. ⋮ 4. Social psychologists use »meta- analysis« to combine results from multiple studies, increasing confidence in findings by assessing consistency across research. This method strengthens scientific knowledge by confirming whether findings can be replicated. ⋮ 5. Ethical issues in social psychological research often involve »deception« and its impact on participants to maintain the validity of studies, but must provide debriefing afterward to restore participants’ well-being. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 4 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section discusses controlled experiments, the correlational method, meta-analysis, and ethical concerns like deception in research. (1. 38:2; 2. 39:1; 3. 40:2; 4. Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ Learning objectives ⋮ 6. Describe the role of heuristic strategies in judging complex information. 8. Compare and contrast automatic and controlled processing in social thought. Heuristic Strategies in Judging Complex Information ⋮ 1. A »heuristic« is a mental shortcut that allows individuals to make judgments and decisions quickly by relying on easily accessible cues, simplifying complex information processing. ⋮ 2. The 1. »Automatic processing« refers to quick, unconscious thinking that occurs without deliberate effort, often based on past experiences or learned associations. ⋮ 2. »Controlled processing« involves deliberate, conscious thinking that requires attention »representativeness heuristic« involves judging the likelihood of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype, leading to stereotyping when we assume someone belongs to a group because they fit a mental image. ⋮ 3. The »availability heuristic« is used when people base judgments on information that is easily recalled, often due to recent exposure or vivid memories. ⋮ 4. »False-consensus effect« is the tendency to and effort, typically used in unfamiliar or complex situations. ⋮ 3. Automatic processing is efficient and allows for quick responses to familiar situations, but it can lead to errors due to reliance on stereotypes or heuristics. ⋮ 4. Controlled processing is slower but more accurate, as it involves careful analysis of information, reducing the risk of errors. ⋮ 5. Automatic and controlled processing coexist in a dual-process model, where overestimate how much others agree with our opinions and behaviours, resulting in individuals switch between automatic responses and controlled thought depending on biased social judgments. ⋮ 5. The »base-rate fallacy« occurs when individuals ignore general statistical information in favour of specific, vivid examples. ⋮ 6. The »just-world hypothesis« suggests that people believe the world is fair, which leads to victim-blaming, assuming that individuals deserve their misfortune. ⋮ 7. While heuristics help simplify decision-making, they often lead to errors such as ignoring base-rate information or overestimating event likelihood due to recent or vivid memories. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 6 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section covers heuristic strategies like representativeness and availability, along with biases such as the false-consensus effect, base-rate fallacy, and just-world hypothesis. (1. 43:2; 2. 43:3; 3. 43:4; 4. 44:2; 5. 44:3; 6. 44:4; 7. 44:1) Other the situation’s complexity. ⋮ 6. »Cognitive load« refers to the mental effort required to process information. High cognitive load can interfere with controlled processing, causing individuals to rely more on automatic processing for quicker decisions. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 3 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section covers automatic processing as quick and efficient but prone to bias, and controlled processing as deliberate and accurate, with cognitive load’s impact on shifting between the two. (1. 46:4; 2. 47:1; 3. 47:2; 9. Explain sources of error in social judgment. 7. Describe how schemas guide our thoughts and actions. Sources of Error in Social Judgment ⋮ 1. The »representativeness heuristic« can cause errors when people judge the likelihood of something based on how similar it is to a 1. A »schema« is a mental framework that helps people organize and process information efficiently by creating categories based on prior knowledge and experiences. ⋮ 2. Schemas guide attention by focusing on information that fits existing frameworks and ignoring contradictory details. This shapes how we interpret the world. ⋮ 3. Schemas influence memory by making it easier to recall details that match the schema, while conflicting information is often ignored or forgotten. ⋮ 4. In guiding behaviour, schemas allow for quick decisions based on past experiences, but they can lead to stereotyping and bias when assumptions based on the schema are inaccurate. ⋮ 5. Schemas are often resistant to change, meaning that people may cling to them even when presented with contradictory evidence, leading to errors in judgment. ⋮ 6. »Self-schemas« are mental structures that people use to organize information about themselves, influencing prototype, rather than considering base-rate information. ⋮ 2. The »availability heuristic« leads to errors by relying on information that is easily recalled—usually due to its vividness or recent exposure—ignoring more relevant but less accessible information. ⋮ 3. »Anchoring« happens when individuals place too much importance on the first piece of information they receive, causing them to under-adjust when processing new information. ⋮ 4. The »false-consensus effect« occurs when people overestimate how much others agree with their beliefs or behaviors, leading to skewed perceptions of social norms. ⋮ 5. The »just-world hypothesis« leads people to believe that individuals get what ⋮ 6. The »base-rate fallacy« happens when people ignore statistical information in favor of anecdotal evidence or vivid examples, leading to faulty judgments. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 6 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section covers key errors in social judgment caused by biases such as the representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic, anchoring, false-consensus effect, just-world hypothesis, and base-rate fallacy. (1. 44:2; 2. 44:3; 3. they deserve, resulting in victim-blaming and overlooking situational influences. how they perceive their own traits and behaviours. ⋮ 7. »Role schemas« involve expectations about how individuals in certain roles (e.g., teacher, parent) are supposed to behave, shaping our judgments of them. ⋮ 8. »Event schemas« (also known as scripts) are mental frameworks that guide expectations about the sequence of events in familiar situations, like dining at a restaurant. || Debrief: 8 flashcards, 4 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section discusses how schemas guide perception, memory, and behaviour, as well as specific types of schemas such as self- schemas, role schemas, and event schemas. (1. 45:2; 2. 45:3; 3. 45:3; 4. 45:4; 5. 45:5; 6. 46:1; 7. 46:2; 8. 46:3) No additional types 10. Describe how emotion influences social cognition, and vice versa. 1. »Emotion« influences social cognition by shaping how we perceive and process social information. For instance, our emotional state can guide our judgments about others and events. ⋮ 2. »Social cognition« also affects our emotions by influencing how we interpret social situations which can result in emotional reactions like happiness, anger, or sadness. ⋮ 3. Emotions like fear and anxiety can lead to biased judgments, causing us to see neutral situations as more threatening or negative. ⋮ 4. Positive emotions, such as happiness, enhance cognitive flexibility, which improves problem-solving abilities and leads to more positive social judgments. ⋮ 5. »Mood congruence« is the tendency to recall memories that align with our current emotional state, meaning that our mood affects which memories we retrieve and influences our social judgments accordingly. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, 0 tables/figures. This section discusses the reciprocal relationship between emotion and social cognition, showing how emotions like fear and happiness influence social judgments, and introduces mood congruence as a key Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ chunk & tape ⋮ Social Psychology — The Science of Overview Human Experience Sociality: The Official Story ⋮ 1. The phrase » social psychology « refers to a subfield of psychology that focuses on understanding phenomena through their sociality, alongside fields like » developmental psychology « and » cognitive psychology «. ⋮ 2. » Social Topic 1: The Field of Social Psychology PE1 (37): Read “Social Psychology – The Science of Human Experience” by D. M. Wegner and D. T. Gilbert, pp. 3-10, (Reading 1) PE1 (37): Answer 3 Questions PE2 (38): Answer 3 Questions The Field of Social Psychology ⋮ 1. Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes like cognition, memory, and emotion. ⋮ 2. The goals of psychology include understanding, predicting, and controlling behaviour and mental processes. ⋮ 3. psychology « traditionally examines how social situations emerge, unfold, and affect people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions, as exemplified by Triplett’s first experiment. ⋮ 3. The excerpt criticizes the official story of » social psychology «, suggesting that the field now encompasses a wide range of topics, including emotion, cognition, personality, and more, extending beyond just social topics. ⋮ 4. Social psychology has expanded to address both social and nonsocial topics, meaning its scope is far broader than its name implies. ⋮ 5. A consequence of this expansion is the decline of core topics like » social interaction «, » relationships «, and » groups «, which have experienced decay over the last few decades. ⋮ 6. Despite calls for urban renewal to revive these core areas, the field has shifted focus, leading to fewer research publications and books on these subjects. ⋮ 7. The authors argue that » social psychology « is no longer just a subfield but a comprehensive field of psychology, focused on the scientific understanding of experience. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 4 new terms, no tables or figures. This section critiques the traditional view of social psychology as a subfield and emphasizes its expanded focus on nonsocial topics. (1. 2:1; 2. 2:2; 3. 2:3; 4. 2:4; 5. 2:5; 6. 2:6; 7. 2:7) The metaphor of urban blight and minor implications for social psychology’s core areas were omitted, along with less exam-relevant Social psychology emerged after World War I, with early research on attitude change and social norms in the 1930s. ⋮ 4. » Social Psychology « is defined by Branscombe and Baron as the study of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings toward others and the relationships developed with them. ⋮ 5. » Social Psychology « is described by Wegner and Gilbert as the scientific understanding of what it is like to be a person and why our existence feels the way it does. ⋮ 6. The first major trend in social psychology is the role EXPERIENCE: THE REAL STORY of cognition in affecting behaviour, a shift observed after the 1970s. ⋮ 7. The second trend is the use of social psychology to address real-life problems, gaining legitimacy inherently isolated, after the mid-1960s. ⋮ 8. Some research in social psychology is driven by intellectual curiosity, while other studies focus on practical areas like romantic love, sexism, body language, and advertising. ⋮ 9. The five main causes of social behaviour include the » behaviour of others «, » cognitive processes «, » physical environment «, » biological Experience: The Real Story ⋮ 1. Philosophers argue that human consciousness is making it impossible to truly experience another’s mind. ⋮ 2. » Humanistic psychology «, as proposed by Maslow, emphasized experiential understanding over scientific observation but failed due to its rejection of scientific methods. ⋮ 3. Social psychology filled the gap left by humanism by becoming the science of experience, focusing on both social and inner life. ⋮ 4. Studies by Milgram, Asch, and others in » social psychology « prioritize the subjective experience of participants, even when they lack scientific elegance. ⋮ 5. Social psychology uses verbal variables «, and » cultural context «. ⋮ 10. The » behaviour of others «, including appearance, influences social behaviour. ⋮ 11. » Cognitive processes « refer to attitudes and beliefs shaping behaviour. ⋮ 12. The » physical environment « encompasses factors like proximity and safety of spaces. ⋮ 13. » Biological variables « include genetic traits such as anxiety or sociability. ⋮ 14. » Cultural context « affects how behaviours are perceived, such as views on methadone use. || Debrief: 14 flashcards, 7 new terms, no tables or figures. This section introduces foundational concepts in social psychology and the trends affecting the field. (1. 1:1; 2. 1:2; 3. 1:3; 4. 1:5; 5. 1:6; 6. reports and ordinary language to understand subjective experience, focusing on the question: “What does it feel like to be you, here and now?” || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This condensed section focuses on key points about the role of social psychology in understanding subjective experience. (1. 3:1; 2. 3:3; 3. 3:7; 4. 3:8; 5. 3:10) Omitted content includes in-depth philosophical discussions and less exam-relevant Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ chunk & tape ⋮ SOME OBJECTIONS ANTICIPATED U1T2: Correlational Research Some Objections Anticipated ⋮ 1. One objection to redefining social psychology as the science of experience is that it leaves out popular topics like » automaticity « and » unconscious processes «, but these topics are actually integral to understanding where consciousness starts and stops. ⋮ 2. Another objection is that if social psychology studies both the experienced and unexperienced, it might become the science of everything, but it is specifically focused on what is inside or outside of experience, not on objectifying attributes. ⋮ 3. Social psychology is not just a warmed-over version of the » cognitive revolution « because it focuses on the qualia of experience—how brain and mind events are felt by the individual, not just how they mediate behavior. ⋮ 4. Social psychology is less concerned with predicting behavior than with understanding what people are experiencing, unlike fields like economics, which rely on equations to predict behavior. ⋮ 5. The renewed interest in » consciousness « across fields like neuroscience and biology validates social psychology’s focus on experience, positioning it at the center of human science. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 4 new terms, no tables or figures. This section discusses objections to redefining social psychology as the science of experience, focusing on the importance of qualia and experience over prediction. (1. 4:1; 2. 4:2; 3. 4:3; 4. 4:4; 5. 4:5) Omitted content includes extended metaphors and commentary on other disciplines’ approaches to Correlational Research ⋮ 1. Some variables, such as the connection between violent video games and aggression, are not suited to controlled experimentation because of ethical or practical concerns, like gaining parental consent for exposing children to violent content. ⋮ 2. In these cases, social psychologists use the »correlational method«, observing whether two variables occur together or correlate, without manipulating an independent variable. ⋮ 3. For example, instead of assigning children to play violent or non-violent video games, researchers observe existing differences in how much violent content children are exposed to and then measure their levels of aggression. ⋮ 4. While correlational research can suggest hypotheses for later studies, it cannot confirm cause and effect due to alternative explanations, such as the possibility that naturally aggressive children choose to play more violent games or that a third factor, like ineffective parenting, influences both. ⋮ 5. Correlations can be positive when high or low scores on one variable are linked to similar scores on the other, or negative when high scores on one correspond with low scores on the other. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 1 new term. This section introduces correlational research as a method when controlled experiments are not viable. (1. 2:1; 2. 2:2; 3. 2:2; 4. 2:3; 5. 2:4) CONCLUSION U1T2: Creating a Body of Knowledge Conclusion ⋮ 1. Social psychologists are often asked “What’s social about it?” when they explain their work, reflecting a misunderstanding of the field’s current focus on experience. ⋮ 2. The term » social psychology « may no longer fully capture the field’s evolving focus, which could be more accurately described as qualia-based psychology or experiential psychology. ⋮ 3. Despite the name, social psychology remains centered on the study of experience, even though its focus now includes broader topics beyond explicitly social concerns. ⋮ 4. This identity confusion stems from the field’s expanding focus, but knowing that experience is central can offer clarity to those practicing within it. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 1 new term, no tables or figures. This section addresses the identity of social psychology and the evolving focus on experience rather than solely social topics. (1. 5:1; 2. 5:2; 3. 5:3; 4. 5:4) Omitted content includes extended metaphors and discussions on alternative naming conventions for the field, which are less likely to be relevant for the exam. Creating a Body of Knowledge ⋮ 1. Researchers build knowledge on a topic through methods like »meta-analysis«, which combines results from multiple studies to see if findings are consistent across research. ⋮ 2. »Replication studies«—repeating prior research—are essential in science; if findings occur in only one lab, confidence in those findings is low. ⋮ 3. A common issue in replication studies is »p-hacking«, where researchers may adjust data or analysis methods to achieve significant results, impacting which findings are reported and replicated. ⋮ 4. Replications are either »direct«, where exact procedures are repeated, or »conceptual«, where the same concept is tested in new ways; replication success often depends on the context of the study. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 4 new terms. This section covers meta-analysis and replication as methods to build knowledge, with a focus on p-hacking and types of replication. Details from Practice Exercise 4, such as p-hacking tools and specific replication studies, are omitted. Read: Scientific Replication in the Study of Social Animals (41) Answer 4 questions (41) U1T2: The Controlled Experiment The Controlled Experiment ⋮ 1. Social psychologists use scientific methods to study complex behaviors like romantic love, despite challenges in defining and measuring such topics. ⋮ 2. The preferred method in social psychology is the »controlled experiment«, designed to show cause and effect by manipulating the »independent variable« and observing changes in the »dependent variable«. ⋮ 3. In a basic experiment, a researcher might vary the appearance of a speaker (independent variable) to observe its effect on a listener’s behavior (dependent variable), with other influences held constant. ⋮ 4. Often, researchers manipulate several independent variables simultaneously to reveal interactions between variables; for instance, testing variations like age, race, and gender may show combined effects on behavior. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 3 new terms. This section outlines the purpose and structure of the controlled experiment in social psychology. (1. 1:1; 2. 1:2; 3. 1:2; 4. 1:3) Excludes examples and exercises on hypothesis testing. View 1.3: How social psychologists answer questions in the Social Psychology Answer the following question: Suppose you want to test the hypothesis… (39) Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ chunk & tape ⋮ U1T2: The Use of Deception in Research 1.3.2: Correlation: The Search for Relationships The Use of Deception in Research ⋮ 1. Observing behavior can alter it, so social psychologists sometimes rely on deception to study authentic responses in real-life situations. ⋮ 2. Deception may involve staging a »bogus situation« and covertly observing participants; for instance, using an actor in a fake emergency and filming without consent. ⋮ 3. While deception poses ethical concerns, social psychologists argue it is justified if subjects receive a debriefing to clarify the study’s true nature afterward. ⋮ 4. If the study causes negative emotions, researchers must attempt to restore participants’ mood, such as by discussing the procedure or using mood-improving activities. ⋮ 5. »Informed consent« is another ethical safeguard requiring participants to understand the study’s conditions and voluntarily agree, though details may be limited to preserve the study’s integrity. ⋮ 6. Supplemental ethical guidelines emphasize protecting participant welfare through measures like minimizing harm, ensuring privacy, and obtaining informed consent, with researchers adhering to professional standards. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 2 new terms. This section covers the ethical implications of using deception in social psychology, including informed consent, mood restoration, and supplemental guidelines on participant welfare. Information from specific ethical code sources was Correlation: The Search for Relationships ⋮ 1. When two attributes, like age of person and age of car, change together, they are said to be »correlated«; one is associated with changes in the other. ⋮ 2. Social psychologists refer to these changeable attributes as »variables«, measurable aspects of the world that can take different values. ⋮ 3. Correlations are useful for making predictions; ⋮ 4. Correlations range from 0 to –1.00 or +1.00, with positive values indicating that increases in one variable relate to increases in another, and negative values showing inverse relationships. ⋮ 5. The »correlational method« examines relationships between variables by measuring each carefully and statistically testing their association. ⋮ 6. An example study found that »Facebook profiles« tend to accurately reflect users’ personalities, shown by correlations between users’ self-reports and ratings by others. ⋮ 7. Correlation does not confirm causation; a third factor may influence both variables, or one variable might affect another over time, making causal conclusions impossible. ⋮ 8. The correlational method is efficient and useful for studying natural settings but is limited in establishing cause-and-effect relationships, which is why social psychologists often prefer experiments. || Debrief: 8 flashcards, 4 new terms. This section introduces correlation, variables, the correlational method, and its limitations. Details on 1.3: How social psychologists answer questions ⋮ 1.3.1: Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us 1.3.3: The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us ⋮ 1. In social psychology, »systematic observation« means observing behavior scientifically, with careful and accurate measurements, rather than informal people-watching. ⋮ 2. »Naturalistic observation« is a form of systematic observation where behavior is recorded in real-life settings without interference; researchers remain unobtrusive to avoid influencing those observed. ⋮ 3. The »survey method« involves asking large groups of people about their attitudes or behaviors, which helps gauge opinions on topics such as marijuana use, gun control, or life satisfaction. ⋮ 4. Surveys are practical for obtaining data from many respondents, allow for comparison between groups, and are increasingly conducted online, including on platforms like Facebook. ⋮ 5. To ensure reliable survey results, »sampling« is critical; participants must reflect the population to avoid biased findings. ⋮ 6. »Wording effects« are another key factor in survey accuracy, as even small differences in question phrasing can lead to different answers. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms. This section covers systematic observation techniques, with a focus on naturalistic observation, the survey method, and potential The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention ⋮ 1. The »experimental method« seeks causal explanations, allowing social psychologists to address the “why” behind relationships between variables. ⋮ 2. Experimentation involves systematically changing one »independent variable« and measuring its effects on a »dependent variable«, with the independent variable being the factor manipulated by the researcher. ⋮ 3. Random assignment is essential, ensuring each participant has an equal chance of exposure to each level of the independent variable to eliminate preexisting differences. ⋮ 4. To prevent »confounding«, all factors other than the independent variable must be held constant; confounding occurs when unrelated variables influence the dependent variable, making the results unclear. ⋮ 5. The experimental method faces challenges with external validity, as lab results may not fully reflect real-world behavior, and ethical limitations can restrict the use of certain experiments. ⋮ 6. Social psychologists recognize no single “best” method; using various methods that yield consistent results strengthens confidence in findings. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms. This section covers key aspects of experimentation, including causal analysis, random assignment, confounding, and external validity. Specific Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ chunk & tape ⋮ 1.3.4: Further Thoughts on Causality: The U1T3: Social Cognition Role of Mediating Variables Further Thoughts on Causality: The Role of Mediating Variables ⋮ 1. Experimentation helps social psychologists answer causality questions, revealing how changes in one variable can cause changes in another, such as increasing or decreasing helping, aggression, or prejudice. ⋮ 2. To understand “why” an independent variable causes these changes, researchers look beyond simple cause and effect, seeking underlying processes that explain the effect. ⋮ 3. »Mediating variables« are factors that lie between the independent and dependent variables, helping to clarify why an independent variable (like playing violent video games) leads to changes in social behavior. ⋮ 4. For example, in studies of video game violence, mediating variables might include thoughts about Practice exercise 5: 2 response questions (45) Practice Exercise 6:1 response question (45) Practice Exercise 7: 3 response questions (46) Social Cognition and Heuristics ⋮ 1. Social cognition is how we understand the social harming others, beliefs about the acceptability of aggression, or levels of empathy for victims, all of which might explain increased aggression. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 1 new term. This section introduces the concept of mediating variables, showing how they clarify underlying processes in causal relationships. 1.3.5: Meta-Analysis: Assessing a Body of Knowledge world with minimal effort, often using shortcuts. ⋮ 2. Heuristics are mental shortcuts, like rules of thumb, simplifying problem-solving with less cognitive effort. ⋮ 3. The representativeness heuristic involves judging an event by how much it resembles a “typical” case, potentially leading to stereotyping. ⋮ 4. The availability heuristic bases decisions on easily recalled information, which may distort judgment accuracy. ⋮ 5. Heuristics simplify thinking but can mislead; a common error is the belief that correlation implies causation without further evidence. ⋮ 6. The false-consensus effect is the tendency to overestimate how much others agree with our views, often influenced by availability. ⋮ 7. The base-rate fallacy involves ignoring statistical probabilities in favor of more vivid, available evidence. ⋮ 8. The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people generally “get what they deserve,” sometimes leading to victim-blaming. ⋮ 9. Framing refers to how the phrasing of options (e.g., “half full” vs. “half empty”) influences consistency of effects, even when studies vary in methods and settings. Meta-Analysis: Assessing a Body of Knowledge ⋮ 1. »Meta-analysis« is a statistical method that synthesizes research findings across multiple studies to assess the ⋮ 2. Meta- analyses help determine the strength of an intervention or the reliability of different theories by revealing patterns and assessing if effects consistently replicate. ⋮ 3. A meta- analysis can identify »moderators«—factors that influence the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable or the strength of a relationship between two variables. ⋮ 4. Eagly and Crowley’s meta-analysis on gender and helping behavior revealed that men were more likely to help in risky, public situations, while caring behaviors associated with female gender roles were less studied, suggesting a research bias. ⋮ 5. Meta- analysis not only clarifies effect sizes but also identifies gaps and biases in research, allowing for a more organized and cumulative scientific understanding. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 2 new terms. This section covers the use of meta-analysis to evaluate research consistency, reveal moderators, and identify gaps. decision-making. ⋮ 10. Anchoring sets a reference point that affects subsequent judgments; they can bias later decisions. ⋮ 11. We are biased by automatic vigilance, a heightened alertness to negative information that catches our attention. ⋮ 12. Motivated skepticism describes our tendency to question information opposing our beliefs while accepting confirming data more readily. ⋮ 13. Counterfactual thinking is imagining alternatives to what actually happened, which influences emotional responses to events. ⋮ 14. The mere-ownership effect means we tend to value objects we own more, linking with cognition to influence behavior; them to self-identity. ⋮ 15. Affect (emotion) interacts thoughts shape feelings, and feelings alter thought processes. ⋮ 16. Positive mood can improve performance, create favorable evaluations, and enhance creativity, underscoring affect’s impact on social judgments. || Debrief: 16 flashcards, 8 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section details heuristics, biases, and affect’s role in social cognition. (1. ¶1; 2. ¶2; 3. ¶3; 4. ¶4; 5. ¶5; 6. ¶6; 7. ¶7; Scientific Replication in the Study U1 review of Social Animals Answer 4 questions Scientific Replication in the Study of Social Animals ⋮ 1. »Replication« in psychology is the process of repeating studies to verify findings, essential for distinguishing science from belief and removing false claims. ⋮ 2. The »Reproducibility Project« sought to replicate 100 studies from top psychology journals to test their robustness across different times, places, and participants, reflecting psychology’s commitment to self- examination. ⋮ 3. The project differentiated »reproducibility« (replicating the analyses in a study) from »replicability« (achieving the same results with new samples), both necessary for scientific validity. ⋮ 4. Low replication rates in other fields, including genetics, pharmacology, and oncology, fueled concerns of a »replication crisis« in science, an issue now challenging psychology. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 4 new terms. This section covers the importance of replication, the goals of the Reproducibility Project, and the distinction between reproducibility and replicability. Explanations of specific replication outcomes and further background on replication challenges in science were omitted. list/read "Summary and Review" (46) list/do "practice quizzes offered in Revel" (46) Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ chunk & tape ⋮ Ch 1: Summary and Review. memory effects. ⋮ 18. Affect also enhances creativity and influences interpretations Social Psychology: Chapter 1 Summary ⋮ 1. Social psychology is the scientific study of the nature and causes of individual thought and behavior in social settings. ⋮ 2. Social psychology is scientific because it uses the scientific method rather than unreliable common sense, acknowledging biases that influence personal thought. ⋮ 3. Social Reference TITLE psychology studies the causes of social behavior, including others’ behavior and appearance, interpretation of others’ actions, environmental factors, cultural values, and biological factors. ⋮ 4. A multicultural approach guides social psychological research to ensure findings apply to all people, accounting for identity as a factor in social thought and behavior. ⋮ 5. Social thought and social behavior are interrelated, with a continuous interplay between them that includes based on reason, such as supernatural beliefs related to terror management. ⋮ 17. Affect influences perception and memory, with mood congruence and mood-dependent of others’ actions. ⋮ 19. Cognition shapes emotion by interpreting events and activating emotion-laden schemas. ⋮ 20. Affective forecasts predict future emotions using cognitive assessment, while actual experience engages emotional response. || Debrief: 20 flashcards, 11 new terms, no tables or figures. This section covers heuristics, schemas, and the interaction between cognition and affect in social judgment. (1. 1:1; 2. 1:1; 3. 1:1; 4. 1:1; 5. 1:2; 6. 1:2; 7. 1:3; 8. 1:3; 9. 1:3; 10. 1:3; 11. 1:4; 12. 1:4; 13. 1:5; 14. 1:5; 15. 1:5; 16. 1:6; 17. 1:7; 18. 1:7; 19. 1:7; 20. 1:8) Details on specific examples of heuristics and additional nuances of affect-cognition interaction were omitted. the role of emotion. ⋮ 6. Key trends in social psychology include interest in social relationships, social neuroscience, and the impact of digital technology and social media. ⋮ 7. Modern social psychology explores implicit, or nonconscious, processes that shape social behavior. ⋮ 8. Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording behavior in natural settings. ⋮ 9. Survey methods ask large groups of people about their attitudes or behavior. ⋮ 10. In the correlational method, two or more variables are measured to assess their relationship. ⋮ 11. The experimental method involves altering independent variables to observe changes in dependent variables, requiring random assignment and control of other factors to avoid confounding. ⋮ 12. The experimental method’s limitations include concerns about external validity and its inapplicability in certain practical or ethical situations. ⋮ 13. Research on mediating variables clarifies how specific independent variables impact social thought and behavior. ⋮ 14. Meta-analysis synthesizes findings across studies to identify knowledge gaps. ⋮ 15. Moderators can alter the impact or relationship between two variables. ⋮ 16. Theories are frameworks that explain events or processes and are central to social psychology research. ⋮ 17. Deception in social psychology is used to withhold study purposes but is only deemed acceptable with informed consent and thorough debriefing. || Debrief: 17 flashcards, 9 new terms, no tables or figures. This section summarizes the foundations of social psychology, major trends, research methods, and ethics. (1. 1:1; 2. 1:1; 3. 1:2; 4. 1:2; 5. 1:3; 6. 1:3; 7. 1:4; 8. 1:5; 9. 1:5; 10. 1:5; 11. 1:6; 12. 1:6; 13. 1:6; 14. 1:6; 15. 1:6; 16. 1:7; 17. 1:8) Content on specific examples and criticisms of methods was omitted. Ch 2: Summary and Review. 1. Social cognition involves how we think about others and the social world, limited by ⋮ 2. Heuristics are simple rules for making decisions quickly and with minimal effort, helping us deal with information overload. ⋮ 3. The our cognitive capacity. representativeness heuristic suggests that the more similar someone is to a group’s Reference TITLE prototype, the more likely they belong to that group; base rates are often ignored. ⋮ 4. The availability heuristic suggests that information easy to recall affects judgments, even if vivid events are not common. ⋮ 5. Anchoring uses an initial value as a reference, adjustments are often insufficient; the portion size effect illustrates this tendency. ⋮ 6. ⋮ 7. Schemas are mental frameworks that organize information and influence attention, on experience, leading to perseverance effects until unpriming occurs. ⋮ 9. Self-fulfilling effects of schemas can The status quo heuristic biases us toward preferring established options over new ones. encoding, and retrieval. ⋮ 8. Priming activates schemas based lead us to act in ways that confirm them. ⋮ 10. Metaphors connect abstract concepts to unrelated ideas, shaping social responses. ⋮ 11. Controlled processing is logical and effortful, while automatic processing is quick and intuitive, involving distinct brain areas. ⋮ 12. Automatic processing can influence behavior unconsciously, aligning actions with schema-consistent frameworks. ⋮ 13. Optimistic bias leads to expecting positive events, while overconfidence bias overestimates self-accuracy due to omission errors. ⋮ 14. The planning fallacy is our tendency to underestimate time for tasks. ⋮ 15. Counterfactual thinking considers what might have been; "upward" motivates improvement, while "downward" provides comfort. ⋮ 16. Magical thinking includes beliefs not Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ activities ⋮ Biological Variables: (1) My body is responding to the close proximity and emotional Topic 1: The Field of Social Psychology PE1 (37): Answer 3 Questions PE2 (38): Answer 3 Questions connection with heightened arousal. Hormones like oxytocin, which promotes bonding, and dopamine, which spikes during pleasurable moments, are influencing my attraction and desire to act on it. (2) My body is in full fight-or-flight mode, with adrenaline pumping through my system. This physiological response heightens my aggression and suppresses more rational, controlled decision-making. My sympathetic nervous system PE1 (37): Answer 3 Questions is preparing my muscles for action, making me feel physically ready to strike. Cultural Q1. Compare these definitions of social psychology. Are they meaningfully different? Branscombe and Baron (2017, p. x) define it as: “Social psychology . . . studies all aspects of our behaviour with and toward others, our feelings and thoughts about them, and the relationships we develop with them.” Wegner and Gilbert define social psychology as: “the scientific understanding of what it is like to be a person – why our existence at this moment in time and space feels the way it does” (2020, p. 3) ⋮ Yes, they are meaningfully different. Branscombe and Baron (2017) focus on the external aspects of social psychology—how we think, feel, and behave toward others and how we develop relationships. This definition aligns more with the traditional and intuitive understanding of social psychology as the study of social interactions and relationships. In contrast, Wegner and Gilbert (2020) broaden the field’s scope to include the scientific understanding of subjective experience, emphasizing what it feels like to be a person at a given time and place. While the first definition focuses on outward social behavior, the latter centers on the internal experience of human existence, even when it’s not strictly social. ⋮ 0.5/1 Context: (1) In my culture, it’s often expected that one person makes the “first move” to show romantic interest. The romantic scripts I’ve grown up with—movies, books, and social norms—reinforce the idea that taking this risk is a necessary step in building a romantic relationship. (2) The culture I grew up in values toughness and associates masculinity with dominance. There’s a strong influence from media and societal norms that suggests that men handle conflicts with physical aggression. This cultural script makes me feel justified in responding to this provocation with violence, as I’ve U1T2: The Controlled Experiment Answer the following question: Suppose you want to test the hypothesis… (39) Q2. Why do Wegner and Gilbert take this stance? ⋮ Wegner and Gilbert believe that social psychology’s core concern is not merely with social interactions but with understanding subjective experience—what it feels like to be a person in a given situation. They argue that while social psychology traditionally focuses on behavior in social contexts, the field’s real focus should be on the internal experiences of individuals, whether or not the situation is explicitly social. By emphasizing subjective experience, they position social psychology as a broader discipline that seeks to understand the PE2 (38): Answer 2 Questions Devise an original example to illustrate the five major types of causes of each of the following behaviours: (1) Kissing someone; (2) Punching someone in the nose. ⋮ Others’ Behaviour: (1) My friends have encouraged me to make a move, and the person I’m interested in has been dropping romantic hints through body language, lingering glances, and playful touches, signaling that they’re open to more intimacy. (2) The person has been provoking me repeatedly, acting aggressively and violating my personal boundaries. They’ve made direct threats and continue to push me physically, Question: Suppose you want to test the hypothesis that “well-groomed salespeople make more sales than poorly groomed salespeople.” What would the independent and dependent variables be in this experiment? What procedure would you use to test the hypothesis? ⋮ Answer: The independent variable in this experiment is the grooming standard of the salesperson (categorized as unkempt, casually groomed, or professionally groomed). The dependent variable is the sales volume achieved by the salesperson, which can be measured as the total dollar amount of sales made within a set period. To test this hypothesis, I would have an actor portray a salesperson under each grooming condition (unkempt, casual, and professional) across nine different retail locations. Each location would be randomly assigned one of the three grooming conditions, ensuring that three locations represent each condition. To control for variability, each location would be selected based on having stable, predictable average daily sales, and testing would occur outside of times known for extreme sales fluctuations (e.g., avoiding major sales events or holiday seasons). After data collection, I would compare the actor’s sales volume against the venue’s average daily sales per representative, calculated as a percentage of the average. If the hypothesis is supported, we would expect the sales volume percentage to be higher on days when the actor is professionally groomed, compared to days when they are casually or unkemptly groomed. This approach controls for external variables and provides a clearer understanding of the impact of grooming on sales performance. ⋮ escalating the situation to a point where I feel confrontation is unavoidable. Cognitive Processes: (1) I’ve been thinking about how much chemistry we’ve developed, and I believe this is the perfect moment to take the next step. My internal dialogue is telling me that I’ll regret it if I don’t act now, and I’m interpreting their signals as mutual interest. (2) My thoughts are focused on the idea that this person needs to be “put in their place.” I rationalize that a quick, strong response—like punching them—will end the conflict and U1T2: Creating a Body of Knowledge Answer 4 questions (41) prevent them from continuing to antagonize me. I also believe that this is the only way to defend myself and stop them. Physical Environment: (1) We’re at a beach bonfire, where the atmosphere is warm and intimate. The soft crackle of the fire, the secluded setting, and the dim lighting create a romantic ambiance, making it feel like the right time for a kiss. (2) We are in a secluded area, far from witnesses or authority figures, which makes me feel less restrained about engaging in a physical confrontation. The absence of potential consequences, like getting arrested or someone intervening, makes it easier Q1 What is p-hacking? Use the interactive tool on page 451 of Reading 31 to explore this phenomenon for yourself. ⋮ Answer: p-hacking occurs when researchers vary sample parameters post-hoc to create sample conditions where the effect has statistical significance. The problem is that this generally results in relying on an alpha that that is not suitable for the sample actually used to report the effect. ⋮ Score: 0.8 Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ activities ⋮ Q2. How does p-hacking affect what “truths” are reported in the news? ⋮ Answer: Science news is usually reduced to the most vivid details about cause and effect using black and white language, overlooking the nuances of research methods and statistical analyses. Therefore, the conclusions resulting from p-hacking that are discussed in the news may appear to have support from "new scientific research." But if the methods, data, analyses were properly scrutinized, the conclusion would be much less vivid and less interesting. The detrimental long term effect is the loss of public trust in scientific reporting. ⋮ Score: 0.9 Q3. How does p-hacking relate to the replication debate? ⋮ Answer: The replication debate cast suspicion on whether or not the conventions of scientific research were a legitimate use of research funds and means of establishing scientific knowledge. P- hacking contributed significantly to broad skepticism, as it showed that false/exaggerated conclusions were well integrated into research conventions. Indeed, researchers even have personal incentive to inflate results in order to further their careers. ⋮ Score: 0.9 Q4. What are the differences between direct and conceptual replications? ⋮ Answer: A direct replication copies the methods of a study exactly, presuming that the exact same methods will interact with the population sample in exactly the same way. A conceptual replication is one the replicates the methods, but make adjustments to the instruments (wording, scales, etc.) to better suit the differences expected from a different U1T3: Social Cognition Practice exercise 5: 2 response questions (45) Practice Exercise 6:1 response question (45) Practice Exercise 7: 3 response questions (46) Practice exercise 5: 2 response questions (45) Answer the following questions: Scientific Replication in the Study Q1. Your mother is alarmed by your interest in jogging. She points out that during the Vancouver Marathon, in which 2,000 people ran 42 kilometres, a middle-aged runner died of a heart attack. How could your mother’s use of the representativeness heuristic interfere with an accurate use of base-rate information about heart attacks? ⋮ “:Your mother’s use of the representativeness heuristic leads her to associate jogging with the high risk of a heart attack because she has a specific, memorable example of a middle-aged runner who died during the Vancouver Marathon. However, this vivid example distracts her from the broader base- rate information showing that, on average, jogging is a healthy activity with a low probability of causing a heart attack in a healthy individual. By focusing on a single case that resembles a potential danger, she falls into the base-rate fallacy, ignoring statistical data that suggest regular jogging generally decreases heart risk.” ⋮ Score: 0.5 of Social Animals Answer 4 questions Q1. What is p-hacking? ⋮ Answer: P-hacking is the practice of manipulating data post-hoc by selectively analyzing variables or subsets of data to achieve statistically significant results (often p ≤ 0.05). This practice undermines the reliability of results, increasing the likelihood of finding spurious patterns purely by chance, thus inflating false positives. This artificial significance does not reflect the true relationship between variables, leading to misleading conclusions about a hypothesis’s validity. ⋮ Score 0.8 Q2. How does p-hacking affect what “truths” are reported in the news? Answer: P- hacking affects reported “truths” by inflating the probability of finding statistically significant results, which the media often presents as new scientific truths. This distortion occurs because studies with significant findings are more likely to be published and attract media attention. Researchers may feel pressured to achieve significant results for publication, incentivizing p-hacking. Consequently, “scientific evidence” reported in the news may rest on findings that are less robust than they appear, representing a chance occurrence rather than a reliable truth. ⋮ Score 0.7 Q2. Your mother is alarmed by your interest in jogging, but you think her concern is illogical. You discussed the risks and benefits with your buddies at the fitness studio, and they agreed that you shouldn’t listen to her. Discuss the situation with regard to false consensus and availability. ⋮ Answer: My search for the truth about Mum's concern ought to be met with supporting or refuting evidence about Mum's claim. Hearing opinions from my friends that support my opinion may offer a sense of satisfaction, but the satisfaction is likely due to the false-consensus effect. That is, I've limited my search to a small group because they are available for conversation. The consensus among us is not surprising granted our similar interests. Nor is it surprising that I consider their opinions significant, as this group comprises a significant proportion of my meaningful social connections. However, the biases effecting this situation reflect the false-consensus effect: dependence on (1) an availability heuristic and (2) a very biased, small sample. “This response addresses both false consensus and availability Practice Exercise 6:1 response question (45) Q3. How does p-hacking relate to the replication debate? ⋮ Answer: P-hacking is directly related to the replication crisis because it produces results that are less likely to replicate in future studies. When data is manipulated to achieve statistical significance, the reported findings may not hold under repeated testing, thus reducing confidence in the robustness of such research. In the replication debate, some argue that studies showing low reproducibility should be discredited, while others advocate for cautious reevaluation. This debate suggests a middle ground where further replication studies are essential to discern reliable findings from those affected by p-hacking. ⋮ Score: 0.9. Q1. The six cognitive phenomena described above can lead to erroneous judgments, but they also serve a useful purpose for the cognitive miser. Identify a personal example of when you have used these phenomena. ⋮ Answer: I use the representative heuristic very often in conversation, making judgements about the way people are reacting to me based on the facial expression they make. I understand that my judgements aren't always correct, so I hold my intuited perceptions in tension. However, I generally find this method is much better than always asking the person I'm with to clarify how they feel about our conversation. Score: 0.8 Q4. What are the differences between direct and conceptual replications? What is the effect of context on replication? ⋮ Answer: Direct replication aims to repeat an original study as precisely as possible, changing only the sample to test whether the findings are consistent. In contrast, conceptual replication tests the same underlying hypothesis but allows for adjustments in methodology to account for contextual changes. Context—such as time, location, participant demographics, and environmental factors—can affect replication outcomes, especially when these factors significantly influence variables. While some contextual differences are negligible, others can profoundly impact results, as in Practice Exercise 7: 3 response questions (46) Answer the following questions: Q1. You learned that the act of smiling might actually make the smiler feel happy. Try this—smile when you don’t feel specifically happy—apart from feeling better, do you notice any change in how you think? Could you use this technique on real life? ⋮ Answer: I learned this when I was very young, I was given a job where I noticed I would Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science & Social Cognition ⋮ activities ⋮ achieve more success if I greeted people with a noticeable smile. Between visits, I would force out a smile, and then laugh at my silly attempts to smile. Not only did this practice pay off at work, I noticed it oriented me toward a picture of success that was achievable. ⋮ Score: 0.8 Q2. Being in a positive mood, for instance, enhances our performance of some tasks, leads us to evaluate an ambiguous situation more favourably, and enhances our memory and creativity. Think about television advertising that is most effective—how do these connections between affect and thinking facilitate our buying habits? ⋮ Answer: Advertisers aim to make present some aspect of life as painfully unsatisfying, compelling us to associate that aspect with cognitive dissonance. Then, they promote their product/service as the solution to that dissonance. They use sensory techniques some as visuals and sounds that stimulate specifics affects to drive the effect home at a subliminal level, using their branding their product with positive affect. The result is a lingering sense of dissonance that directs us to engage their product to find the positive affect associated with their brand/product/service. ⋮ Score: 0.8 “it could more directly address how positive affect specifically enhances memory, creativity, and favorable evaluation, which are central to why some advertisements are particularly effective.” Q3. Consider the importance of emotion and cognition in first impressions. How could it matter that I feel grouchy when by chance we first meet? What if you are wearing a tattoo, and I already have strong feelings about tattoo wearers? Am I likely to use heuristic processing in my judgements? ⋮ Answer: Yes. Your opinion of me will be affected by multiple heuristic disadvantages. For example: (1) My bad mood is likely to illicit skepticism, which could cause you to doubt anything of merit I broach. (2) My tattoo is likely to illicit automatic vigilance, which could cause you to be extra attentive to anything else I say/do Unit 2: Social Perception and Attitudes 1. Describe five basic nonverbal channels of communication and explain how they help us judge emotional states. 4. Identify the learning processes that cause attitude formation. Five Basic Nonverbal Channels of Communication ⋮ 1. Facial expressions convey Learning Processes in Attitude Formation ⋮ 1. Classical conditioning occurs when a universal emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, and disgust. Accuracy varies, neutral stimulus paired repeatedly with a positive or negative stimulus elicits the same especially for emotions like fear, which is often confused with surprise. ⋮ 2. Eye contact communicates emotions such as friendliness or discomfort. Continuous staring may signal aggression or hostility, while avoidance can indicate shyness or deceit. ⋮ 3. Body language, encompassing posture, gestures, and movements, reflects emotions such as confidence or anxiety. Some gestures, known as emblems, have culturally specific meanings. ⋮ 4. Touching communicates feelings like affection or dominance, depending on factors like duration and context. ⋮ 5. Paralanguage, including tone, pitch, and speech emotional response; this can happen unconsciously, as in subliminal conditioning. ⋮ 2. Instrumental conditioning, or operant conditioning, involves attitudes formed through rewards or punishments, such as praise for socially accepted views. ⋮ 3. Observational learning happens when individuals adopt attitudes by observing behaviors and outcomes in others, especially those they respect or identify with. ⋮ 4. Social comparison influences attitudes as people align their views with groups they value or belong to, fostering shared beliefs. ⋮ 5. Mere exposure strengthens attitudes through repeated rate, conveys emotions beyond spoken words, such as urgency or relaxation. ⋮ 6. Deception cues include brief involuntary facial expressions, inconsistencies between nonverbal and verbal communication, speech errors, and changes in eye behavior like blinking or pupil dilation. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 2 new terms, no tables or figures. This set explores channels like facial expressions, eye contact, and paralanguage for understanding emotions and detecting deception. (Branscombe & Baron, 76:3; 78:3; 78:5; 79:2; 86:2) Information on deception cue accuracy in different contexts and in-depth cultural differences in gestures omitted. exposure to stimuli, which increases familiarity and positive feelings. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This set examines processes such as classical and instrumental conditioning, observational learning, and social comparison in attitude formation. (Branscombe & Baron, 152:1; 153:2; 155:3; 158:2) Detailed mechanisms of subliminal conditioning and examples of cultural variance in social learning were omitted. 5. Describe the links between attitudes and behaviours. Links Between Attitudes and Behaviors ⋮ 1. Situational factors, such as social norms and 2. Describe how the process of attribution guides our understanding of the behaviour of others. perceived consequences, often constrain behavior, limiting the expression of attitudes. For instance, pluralistic ignorance can suppress attitudes in public contexts. ⋮ 2. Attitude 1. Attribution involves explaining behaviors by identifying their causes, which can be internal (traits, motives) or external (environment, circumstances). ⋮ 2. Kelley’s covariation theory evaluates consensus (how others behave), consistency (how behavior strength, involving clarity, correctness, and personal experience, predicts stronger attitude-behavior consistency, especially for vested interests or moral convictions. ⋮ 3. The theory of planned behavior explains that deliberate behaviors arise from attitudes, recurs over time), and distinctiveness (whether behavior is unique to specific contexts) to determine internal or external causes. ⋮ 3. Correspondence bias, or the fundamental attribution error, describes our tendency to overattribute behavior to internal causes subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, with intentions serving as the key mediator. ⋮ 4. The attitude-to-behavior process model illustrates how attitudes spontaneously shape perceptions and guide behavior in the absence of deliberate while underestimating situational influences. ⋮ 4. Actor-observer bias reflects the tendency to attribute others’ behaviors to internal factors but explain our own actions thought, integrating norms and interpretations of the situation. ⋮ 5. Cultural context with situational causes. ⋮ 5. Self-serving bias leads to attributing successes to internal causes (e.g., ability) and failures to external factors (e.g., luck). ⋮ 6. Action identification describes the abstraction level in interpreting actions: low-level focuses on the behavior modifies attitude-behavior links; in “tight” cultures, social norms dominate, while “loose” cultures like the U.S. show stronger links between personal attitudes and behavior. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This set examines situational and cultural constraints, attitude strength, and models like planned behavior and spontaneous activation in shaping behavior. (Branscombe & Baron, 162:2; 164:1; 166:2; 180:1) itself, while high-level attributes intentions and goals to the actor. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This set covers attribution processes like covariation theory and biases, including correspondence and actor-observer effects, to explain behavior. (Branscombe & Baron, 87:1, 91:3, 95:4, 98:2) Specific examples of biases in cross- Details on specific studies demonstrating cultural variations and individual differences in attitude strength omitted. cultural contexts and deep examination of controllability factors were omitted. 6. Describe the factors that determine if persuasion attempts will be effective in changing attitudes. 3. Describe our use of initial impressions in forming perceptions of others. Factors Influencing Persuasion Effectiveness ⋮ 1. Communicator credibility, which Initial Impressions and Perception Formation ⋮ 1. First impressions form rapidly, often within seconds, using physical appearance, facial expressions, and nonverbal cues as the basis. These impressions can guide subsequent interactions and expectations. ⋮ 2. Thin slices of behavior, brief observations lasting mere seconds, enable reasonably accurate assessments of traits like extraversion or threat potential. ⋮ 3. Central traits, such as “warm” or “cold,” influence overall perceptions, altering how other traits are particularly when the communicator appears unbiased. improvements) generally being more persuasive than negatively framed ones emphasizing risks. ⋮ 4. Audience characteristics, such as motivation and ability to process information, affect persuasion routes; systematic processing requires strong interpreted and forming a cohesive impression. ⋮ 4. Impression malleability over time occurs when new, relevant information modifies or reinterprets prior judgments, particularly if the new context redefines ambiguous behaviors. ⋮ 5. Impression accuracy, though generally better than chance, is less reliable for complex characteristics like intelligence; initial impressions can lead to misplaced confidence in their validity. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This set explores first impressions, the impact of central traits, and the process of revising initial judgments with new information. (Branscombe & Baron, 100:2; 101:3; 102:1) Examples of impression management tactics and extended discussions on the accuracy of first impressions for specific traits were omitted. includes expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness, strongly influences persuasion, ⋮ 2. Fear appeals work best when moderate fear levels are combined with clear, actionable solutions to avoid the feared outcomes; excessive fear can backfire, causing avoidance or defensiveness. ⋮ 3. Message framing, with positively framed messages highlighting benefits (e.g., health (heuristics) for distracted or uninterested audiences. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This set examines factors like communicator credibility, fear appeal framing, and audience characteristics, along with cognitive models like ELM. (Branscombe & Baron, 172:1, 174:1, 177:1, 178:3) Details on resistance to persuasion and individual differences omitted. arguments, while heuristic processing depends on cues like communicator attractiveness. ⋮ 5. Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) explains persuasion through central routes (argument strength) for attentive audiences and peripheral routes Unit 2: Social Perception and Attitudes 7. Describe factors that enable a person to resist persuasion. Topic 1: social perception Factors Enabling Resistance to Persuasion ⋮ 1. Reactance occurs when attempts to limit personal freedom provoke negative reactions, often leading to attitude changes opposite to the persuader’s intention. ⋮ 2. Forewarning alerts individuals to an impending persuasive attempt, allowing them to prepare counterarguments or bolster their existing attitudes. ⋮ 3. Selective avoidance involves ignoring or avoiding information that contradicts existing attitudes while selectively focusing on supportive information. ⋮ 4. Counterarguing, actively challenging opposing messages, strengthens initial attitudes and reduces susceptibility to persuasion. ⋮ 5. Ego-depletion, a state of reduced self- regulation, undermines resistance, making individuals susceptible to both strong and weak arguments. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 2 new terms, no tables or figures. This set explores factors like reactance, forewarning, and selective avoidance that enhance resistance to persuasion. (Branscombe & Baron, 174:3; 175:2; 176:1; 177:2) Omitted in-depth examples of individual variability in counterarguing and the specific mechanisms of ego-depletion studies. Chapter 3 “Social Perception: Seeking to Understand Others” in Social Psychology. Practice Exercise 1: 1 question (51) Practice Exercise 2: 1 question (51) Chapter 3 Social Perception: 3.1: Nonverbal Communication: An Unspoken Language 1. Nonverbal communication involves transmitting information through expressions, 8. Explain cognitive dissonance and describe some strategies for reducing it. offering insight into emotions beyond spoken language. ⋮ 2. Social psychologists emphasize five basic nonverbal channels: facial expressions, eye contact, body movements and posture, gestures, and touching, all crucial for understanding others’ emotions. ⋮ 3. Facial expressions convey core emotions like happiness, anger, sadness, and disgust universally but with cultural differences in recognition accuracy; happiness is 1. Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort that arises when attitudes and the easiest to identify across cultures. ⋮ 4. Eye contact typically signals liking or behaviors are inconsistent, motivating efforts to restore consistency. ⋮ 2. Changing friendliness, while staring can communicate hostility or anger and often causes discomfort or avoidance. ⋮ 5. Body movements and gestures, including emblems attitudes is a direct strategy to reduce dissonance, particularly in cases of insufficient justification where attitudes shift to align with behaviors. ⋮ 3. Trivialization minimizes the importance of conflicting elements, reducing their perceived impact on the self-concept. ⋮ 4. Self-affirmation restores positive self-evaluations by focusing on personal strengths, reducing discomfort without addressing the specific inconsistency. ⋮ 5. Behavioral change, such as adopting actions consistent with attitudes, resolves dissonance directly by closing the gap between beliefs and behaviors. ⋮ 6. Hypocrisy induction involves highlighting inconsistencies between behaviors and espoused attitudes, motivating (culturally specific movements), reveal emotional states, with frequent movements indicating nervousness or arousal. ⋮ 6. Touching depends on context and relationships; appropriate touching (e.g., firm handshakes) elicits positive reactions, but inappropriate contact results in negative perceptions. ⋮ 7. Paralanguage, encompassing vocal elements like tone, pitch, and volume, often reveals emotions more accurately than words; laughing or crying conveys feelings beyond speech. ⋮ 8. The facial feedback hypothesis suggests that facial expressions influence internal emotions; for instance, enhancing smiling muscles amplifies positive feelings during joyful events. ⋮ 9. behavioral alignment through self-concept reinforcement. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 2 new terms, no tables or figures. This set covers cognitive dissonance and strategies like trivialization, self-affirmation, and hypocrisy induction. (Branscombe & Baron, 178:1; 179:2; 180:1) Omitted details include cultural influences on dissonance and deeper exploration of self- Microexpressions, fleeting facial cues lasting fractions of a second, reflect true emotions and are difficult to suppress, aiding in deception detection. ⋮ 10. Interchannel discrepancies, mismatches between verbal and nonverbal cues (e.g., smiling paired with defensive posture), occur because liars struggle to align all communication channels. ⋮ 11. Exaggerated expressions, such as forced smiles or overacted sincerity, often Unit outline List 8 learning objectives (48) List 3 topics (49) List activities for each topic (49) indicate attempts at deception. ⋮ 12. Moods affect lie detection; negative moods enhance accuracy by improving attention to message content, while positive moods focus on irrelevant cues like speaker attractiveness. || Debrief: 12 flashcards, 16 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section explains five basic channels of nonverbal communication and how they reveal emotions, focusing on universal principles like facial expressions, vocal cues, and detecting deception. (1. 75:3; 2. 76:1; 3. 76:2; 4. 78:1; 5. 78:2; 6. 79:1; Review assignment 2 Assignment 1: First draft, check rubrise, grammarly, submit. Unit 2: Social Perception and Attitudes See Reveiw to rank and score. 3.2: Attribution: Understanding the Causes of Behavior 3.3: Impression Formation and Management: Combining Information About Others 1. Attribution refers to the process of identifying the causes of behavior or events, often focusing on whether they result from internal traits (e.g., personality) or external factors 1. Impression formation involves combining diverse pieces of information about a person to develop a unified judgment of their character. ⋮ 2. Central traits, like warmth and (e.g., situational influences). ⋮ 2. Jones and Davis’s correspondent inference theory competence, have disproportionate influence on impressions because they shape how states that we attribute traits to others when their actions are freely chosen, produce noncommon effects (outcomes unique to the action), or are socially undesirable. ⋮ 3. Kelley’s covariation model explains causal attribution using consensus (do others act the same?), consistency (does the person behave this way repeatedly?), and distinctiveness (is this behavior specific to the situation?). ⋮ 4. When consensus and distinctiveness are low but consistency is high, internal attributions are likely; when all three factors are high, external attributions are made. ⋮ 5. The fundamental attribution error describes the other traits are interpreted. ⋮ 3. The primacy effect occurs when earlier information strongly influences impressions, while the recency effect refers to the stronger impact of recent information. ⋮ 4. Impression management (or self-presentation) involves strategies to control how others perceive oneself, including promoting positive qualities and minimizing flaws. ⋮ 5. Nonverbal cues like facial expressions, posture, and tone are critical for both forming impressions and managing others’ perceptions. ⋮ 6. Ingratiation, using tactics like flattery or agreement, is a common strategy to increase likability and tendency to overemphasize personal traits and underestimate situational influences in improve social relationships. ⋮ 7. Self-promotion emphasizes personal achievements or explaining others’ behavior, a bias especially prevalent in Western cultures. ⋮ 6. Action identification affects attribution by determining whether behaviors are viewed as concrete (the action itself) or abstract (its meaning), with higher abstraction leading to more abilities to gain respect, though excessive use can harm likability. ⋮ 8. Self-verification involves ensuring others’ perceptions align with one’s true self, balancing authenticity with social acceptance. ⋮ 9. Cultural differences affect impression management: inferences about motives and traits. ⋮ 7. Stability and controllability affect attributions: Stable causes (e.g., personality) persist over time, while controllable causes (e.g., effort) can change with intention. ⋮ 8. Fate attributions, linked to beliefs in religion and complex causality, explain events as “meant to be,” emphasizing external, uncontrollable forces over individual action. ⋮ 9. Cultural differences influence attribution patterns, with Western cultures favoring internal attributions and non-Western cultures more often emphasizing situational factors. || Debrief: 9 flashcards, 13 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section covers key attribution theories by Jones, Davis, and Kelley, attribution biases like the fundamental attribution error, and cultural differences in attribution styles. (1. 87:2; 2. 88:2; 3. 90:2; 4. 90:3; 5. 93:2; 6. 92:2; 7. 91:3; 8. 91:4; 9. 93:2) Examples individualistic cultures favor assertive strategies like self-promotion, while collectivist cultures emphasize harmony and group alignment. || Debrief: 9 flashcards, 11 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section covers impression formation processes, the importance of central traits, and strategies for managing impressions, including cultural variations. (1. 99:2; 2. 101:2; 3. 102:1; 4. 99:4; 5. 103:1; 6. 103:3; 7. 104:1; 8. 105:2; 9. Practice exercise 1 Q1. Because of your expertise in social psychology, you have been hired as a consultant for a large international conference. The manager of guest services wants to know if Canadians’ facial expressions will be understood by people from different cultures. What would you tell her? ⋮ Answer: "That depends. Many non- verbal gestures are universal, facial expressions are the most universal. While recognition accuracy varies from culture to culture, expressions of happiness are widely universal. Conversely, hand gestures, like emblems (hand-shakes, middle finger) are generally culturally specific. ⋮ Score: 4/5 Unit 2: Social Perception and Attitudes Practice Exercise 2 Practice Exercise 4 Q2: Imagine you have to tell your mate a “white lie” to conceal the fact that you have arranged a surprise birthday party. What nonverbal cues would you try to control to avoid being found out? How might the experience of stress or anxiety be similar to lying in terms of the use of body language? ⋮ Answer: I would try to avoid overacting. I would also avoid lying, deferring to as much of the truth as possible without giving away the secret, that will help prevent me from having to control interchannel discrepancies, like those between pitch and microexpressions. I would also try to help me mate feel positive and avoid a negative mood which might make them less sensitive to superficial cues and more sensitive to informational cues. ⋮ Score: 5/5 Topic 2: Attribution Practice Exercise 3: 1 question (52) Practice Exercise 4: 1 question (53) Practice Exercise 5: 1 question (54) Q4. You are out with a friend who makes derogatory statements about the homeless person you see in the street, calling them a loser. What attributions would you make about the causes of the person’s homelessness and why? What attributions would you make about your friend? Why? ⋮ Answer: It appears my friend is assuming the person's homelessness results from internal attributes like the person's attitude and values. The causes for homeless are myriad, though some factors can help separate fact from assumption. (1) Consensus: Is it unusual to be homeless? In some contexts homelessness is highly correlated with recreational drug abuse—in others it more closely associated with traumatic childhood experience, yet in others it is culturally normalized (tropical islands). (2) Consistency: Some people are homeless because they have a permanent disability impeding their integration into society, some are temporarily homeless while they get back on their feet after a bout of bad luck. Some are homeless because they prefer to spend their money on drugs than accommodation. (3) Distinctiveness: Some people would prefer to be homeless, regardless of their financial situation (E.g., Socretes and Buddha). Some people are homeless simply because their circumstances do not permit a permanent dwelling (e.g. circus employees.) To determine the degree to which a persons behaviour is attributable to internal traits vs external factors would require an analysis of all three of these aspects. ⋮ Practice Exercise 5 Practice Exercise 3 Q3. Suppose you saw a parent at the supermarket yelling at her child. Apply Kelley’s Covariation Theory and attribute the parent’s behaviour to external and internal causes. Compare these attributions with those you might make using Davis’s theory of correspondent inference. Answer: Using Kelley's covariation theory I must considered the following levels: (1) consensus: it is more-or-less unusual to see a parent yelling a child at the supermarket, but not entirely rare; (2) consistency: it would be impossible for me to know the consistency of this behaviour unless I've observed with this woman regularly—if I've seen the same behaviour from her 3-4 times, I feel safe calling this highly consistent (granted the circumstance; (3) distinctiveness: unless I've interacted with the woman and child in various contexts, it would be impossible for me to tell if the yelling is about a certain behaviour that is inappropriate for the grocery store, of if it is about the child's behaviour in general. Given that it is less common to yell at a child in the grocery store than it is to yell at peers in one's own home, I think we can say this behaviour is not distinctive. In conclusion, this behaviour is low-consensus, high consistency, low- distinctiveness and is therefore attributed to internal causes. Jones and Davis' Correspondent Inference theory would draw a similar conclusion Q5. My cousin takes astrology seriously. She believes that the events in her life have been predetermined by the positions of the stars and planets at the time of her birth. She won’t make a major decision without first consulting her horoscope. How would you expect this general, external self attribution to affect her behaviour? ⋮ Answer: She may be less inclined to evaluate the power of her own agency and therefore promote a more passive attitude toward her desires, opportunities, and fears. She may tend to forfeit agency in favour of predictability rather than pursue ambitions. She may be hyper-vigilant to environmental factors, which might serve her well if she is an extremely vulnerable person in a very threatening environment. But it is more likely this disposition is highly limiting and will have a net negative effect on her long-term life-satisfaction. ⋮ Score: 5/5 Topic 3: Impression Management attributing the behaviour to internal traits granted that the actions appear to be freely Practice Exercise 6: answer 1 question (55) List "Chapter 5 “Attitudes: Evaluating and Responding to the Social World" (B&B 145) Practice Exercise 7 (55) Practice Exercise 8: answer 3 questions (56) List "10. Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water conservation (A&A 308) List 5.6: Cognitive dissonance: What is it and how do we manage it? (Pearson Revel) Practice Exercise 9: I complete two surveys & 1 question Unit 2: Social Perception and Attitudes Practice Exercise 6: answer 1 question (55) Practice Exercise 6 5.2: When & Why Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? Q1. How could you use impression-management techniques to convince a potential employer that you are the person for the job? (But beware—impression- management techniques that are too blatant may backfire.) ⋮ Answer: I would make a point of observing the strengths, values, personalities, and culture of the work environment before the interview. That would help me to dress in such a way as to match the culture while remaining appropriate for an interview—intended to signal alignment of personal values. I would also make a point of keeping my mood elevated going into the interview as to ensure I am able to sustain an authentic warm and positive disposition. Using my background knowledge I would orient my language to highlight the companies strengths and values, to subtly ingratiate myself to the decision makers. ⋮ Score: 5/5 demonstrated a gap between expressed 1. The attitude-behavior gap occurs because social norms or situational constraints may prevent people from acting on their true attitudes. ⋮ 2. The LaPiere study (1934) attitudes and behavior when businesses that served a Chinese couple later reported they would not serve Chinese customers. ⋮ 3. Pluralistic ignorance refers to mistakenly believing others’ attitudes differ from one’s own, reducing public expression of personal attitudes. ⋮ 4. Attitude strength is influenced by extremity, clarity, and personal experience, with stronger attitudes more likely to predict behavior. ⋮ 5. Attitudes tied to personal experience or core values are more accessible and likely to guide behavior. ⋮ 6. Older adults show greater attitude-behavior consistency due to stronger certainty and valuing resolute positions, while cultural norms can also shape how attitudes link to actions. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include figures. This section examines how social contexts, attitude strength, and demographic factors moderate the link between attitudes and behavior. (1. 158:1; 2. 159:2; 3. 160:1; 4. 162:2; 5. 163:2; 6. 161:3) Omitted details include specific experimental manipulations and nuanced 5 Attitudes: Evaluating and Responding to the Social World 1. Social psychologists define attitude as evaluations of aspects of the world, from issues and objects to groups and people. Attitudes can vary in stability and certainty depending on the context. ⋮ 2. The distinction between explicit attitudes (conscious and reportable) and implicit attitudes (unconscious and less controllable) highlights how some evaluations are beyond conscious awareness. ⋮ 3. Implicit attitudes can be formed through exposure to societal biases, as seen in implicit racial attitudes that contradict explicit egalitarian beliefs. ⋮ 4. The Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures implicit attitudes by analyzing response times for associating concepts, reflecting unconscious biases. ⋮ 5. Attitude formation is influenced by personal values, as seen in religious 5.3: How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior? 1. The theory of reasoned action posits that rational evaluation of behavioral options and their consequences informs behavioral intentions, which predict actions. ⋮ 2. The theory of planned behavior incorporates perceived behavioral control—the belief in one’s ability to perform an action—as a critical factor influencing intentions and behavior. ⋮ 3. Implementation plans strengthen the link between intentions and actions by leveraging situational cues to prompt behavior, bypassing reliance on active decision-making. ⋮ 4. The attitude-to-behavior process model explains spontaneous reactions by showing how beliefs shaping views on embryonic stem cell research. ⋮ 6. Responses based on attitudes shape event interpretation and activate social norms, guiding immediate attitudes involve rapid evaluative perception that differs neurologically from thoughtful, nonevaluative processes. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include figures. This section introduces attitudes, their types, unconscious influences, and neurological underpinnings. (1. 147:2; 2. 148:1; 3. 149:2; 4. 149:3; 5. 150:1; 6. 151:3) behavior. ⋮ 5. Pre-existing attitudes, like anger toward discourteous drivers, influence spontaneous reactions, such as responses to being cut off in traffic, supporting the attitude-to-behavior process model. ⋮ 6. Habits form when attitudes consistently guide repeated behaviors in similar contexts, creating automatic responses. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 5 new terms, may include figures. This section discusses how attitudes influence behavior through deliberate and spontaneous pathways, including theoretical models and supporting studies. (1. 164:2; 2. 165:1; 3. 165:3; 4. 166:1; 5. 166:2; 6. 166:3) Omitted 5.1: Attitude Formation: How Attitudes Develop 1. Attitudes are often formed through social learning, where views are acquired by observing or interacting with others. ⋮ 2. Classical conditioning forms attitudes by associating a neutral stimulus with a positive or negative unconditioned stimulus, 5.4: The Science of Persuasion: How Attitudes Are Changed influencing preferences without conscious awareness. ⋮ 3. Instrumental conditioning involves learning attitudes through rewards or punishments, as seen in social approval shaping attitudes on social issues. ⋮ 4. Observational learning occurs when people adopt attitudes by observing those held by similar individuals, known as reference groups. ⋮ 5. 1. Persuasion relies on the communicator’s credibility, determined by expertise, trustworthiness, and absence of perceived biases. ⋮ 2. Message framing influences effectiveness; positively framed messages often work better than negative ones, Subliminal conditioning forms attitudes through exposure to stimuli too brief to register consciously, creating unconscious associations. ⋮ 6. Social comparison adjusts attitudes based on similarity to others; people align their attitudes with those they identify with or admire. ⋮ 7. Attitude formation is shaped by long-term political applications, as shown in changes to attitudes during exposure to new social networks, such as in college students adjusting views to fit peers. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 6 new terms, may include figures. This section explains mechanisms of attitude formation, emphasizing classical, instrumental, and observational learning, social comparison, and political applications. (1. 152:2; 2. 153:1; 3. 154:2; 4. 155:3; 5. 156:2; 6. 157:1; 7. 155:5) Omitted details include specific case studies particularly with audiences that perceive low personal risk. ⋮ 3. Fear-based messages must balance fear with actionable solutions to avoid avoidance behaviors, as excessive fear can undermine persuasion. ⋮ 4. The elaboration-likelihood model (ELM) describes two processing routes: central processing involves careful consideration of arguments, while peripheral processing relies on cues like attractiveness or authority. ⋮ 5. Cognitive load affects processing; distracted audiences depend on peripheral cues, making them vulnerable to superficial persuasive elements. ⋮ 6. Persuasion is more successful when audiences identify with the communicator’s group or values, enhancing message acceptance. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include figures. This section discusses how communicator characteristics, message framing, emotional appeals, cognitive processing, and group identification shape persuasion outcomes. (1. 167:3; 2. 170:2; 3. 169:2; 4. 171:2; 5. 172:1; 6. 172:3) Omitted details include specific advertising campaigns and neurological Unit 2: Social Perception and Attitudes 5.5: resisting persuasion attempts Practice Exercise 8 1. Reactance occurs when individuals resist persuasion attempts perceived as threats to their freedom, often adopting opposing attitudes . ⋮ 2. Forewarning about persuasive intent allows people to prepare counterarguments, reducing persuasion effectiveness unless they are distracted . ⋮ 3. Selective avoidance involves ignoring opposing messages while focusing on information consistent with one’s attitudes, reinforcing pre- existing views . ⋮ 4. Counterarguing actively refutes contradictory information, strengthening original attitudes and reducing persuasion susceptibility . ⋮ 5. Ego- depletion undermines resistance by reducing self-regulation; individuals become equally persuaded by weak and strong arguments when self-control is exhausted . ⋮ 6. Petty and Cacioppo’s (1979) study demonstrated how ego-depletion increases susceptibility to weak arguments, showing that tired individuals accept poor persuasive messages as easily as strong ones . ⋮ 7. Brinol et al. (2004) studied resistance styles, finding that individuals either counterargue or bolster pre-existing beliefs when faced with opposing messages . || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 5 new terms, may include figures. This section discusses psychological defenses, resistance strategies, and key experiments related to persuasion resistance. (1. 173:3; 2. 174:2; 3. 174:4; 4. 175:3; 5. 176:1; 6. Think about how you would react and what you would think to the following persuasion attempts. Review how your reactions relate to the discussion in Chapter 5 of Branscombe and Baron on resisting persuasion: Scenario 1. You are buying a new set of headphones. The salesperson is attempting to sell you a more expensive model than the one you want. You like its features, but you can’t really afford it. You are tempted! ⋮ Answer: (a) The sales persons name tag says "sales representative" so I was forewarned about the persuasion and readied my counterarguments. (b) I had planned my attitudes and behaviours in advance, deciding on the features that I need vs like and set myself an ideal and absolute max budget. (c) I'm in a bit of a bad mood because I do not like shopping, making more attentive to logical factors and less susceptible to heuristic driven impulses. I also had a coffee before visiting the store, having a similar effect. With all this in mind decide to take the headphones if they're at or below my absolute max and walk away and they're over it ⋮ Score: 5/5 ◦Skipping the other 2 questions (they’re too similar) 10 Using Cognitive Dissonance to Encourage Water Conservation PART ONE ⋮ 1. Cognitive dissonance arises when a person holds two conflicting cognitions, creating an unpleasant state that motivates attitudinal or behavioral adjustments to restore consistency. ⋮ 2. The hypocrisy condition involves reminding people of their past inconsistent behaviors after they make a public commitment, which intensifies dissonance and promotes behavior change. ⋮ 3. Informational campaigns aimed at changing behavior can fail due to resistance, temporary effects, or backlash when the message feels coercive. ⋮ 4. The UCSC water conservation campaign showed that combining public commitments with reminders of past wasteful actions was more effective than using persuasive messages alone. ⋮ 5. Counter-attitudinal advocacy requires people to defend a belief they initially oppose, causing them to adjust their beliefs through dissonance reduction. ⋮ 6. In pro-attitudinal advocacy, creating feelings of hypocrisy by highlighting discrepancies between stated values and prior actions motivates behavior change through self-persuasion. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section outlines how cognitive dissonance drives behavior change through psychological discomfort and 5.6: Cognitive Dissonance: What Is It and How Do We Manage It? 1. Cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant state experienced when individuals notice inconsistencies between their attitudes and behaviors, causing psychological discomfort . ⋮ 2. Induced compliance occurs when individuals perform an action that contradicts their attitudes, especially when external justification is minimal, leading to attitude change . ⋮ 3. Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) classic study found that participants paid $1 to lie experienced more dissonance and attitude change than those paid $20 due to insufficient justification . ⋮ 4. Trivialization is a coping mechanism where individuals reduce dissonance by minimizing the importance of the inconsistency . ⋮ 5. Self- affirmation theory posits that focusing on positive aspects of oneself can reduce dissonance without addressing the inconsistency directly . ⋮ 6. Hypocrisy induction uses dissonance to promote behavior change by highlighting the inconsistency between individuals’ advocated beliefs and past actions . ⋮ 7. Cultural tightness-looseness theory explains how cultural contexts affect the intensity of dissonance experienced, with tighter cultures enforcing stronger normative compliance . || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 6 new terms, may include figures. This section covers cognitive dissonance, key experiments, resolution strategies, and cross-cultural variations. (1. 177:1; 2. 178:1; 3. 178:2; 4. 179:2; 5. 179:3; 6. 180:2; 7. 181:1) Omitted details include in-depth experimental methods and marginal Unit 2: Social Perception and Attitudes PART TWO: Methods ⋮ 1. Participants were 80 female swimmers recruited from a campus pool, ensuring consistent showering behavior after swimming. ⋮ 2. The experimental design used a 2x2 factorial structure, combining mindfulness (reminders of past wastefulness) with commitment (public pledges), yielding four experimental conditions. ⋮ 3. The four conditions were: mindful-only, commitment-only, mindful-plus-commitment (hypocrisy), and unmindful/ uncommitted (control). ⋮ 4. Experimenter 1 conducted the manipulations, asking subjects survey questions or collecting public pledges, while Experimenter 2 unobtrusively timed showers to measure behavior change. ⋮ 5. Shower room setting allowed natural observation with no shower stalls, making it easy for Experimenter 2 to record shower duration and water shutoff behavior without detection. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section describes participant selection, experimental conditions, and observer roles in assessing water conservation behavior. (1. 10:31; 2. 10:33; 3. 10:34; 4. 10:37; 5. 10:40) Detailed descriptions of survey questions and randomization procedures were omitted. PART THREE: Results ⋮ 1. Hypocrisy condition subjects took significantly shorter showers than those in the control group, indicating stronger motivation for water conservation. ⋮ 2. Subjects in the mindful-only and commitment-only conditions showed moderate reductions in shower duration but did not differ significantly from the control group. ⋮ 3. Turning off water behavior was highest in the hypocrisy, mindful-only, and commitment-only groups, all significantly outperforming the control group in water conservation acts. ⋮ 4. The researchers reasoned that mild dissonance may have occurred in the mindful-only and commitment-only groups due to reminders or pledges, causing partial behavior change. ⋮ 5. The hypocrisy condition caused the highest dissonance arousal, motivating subjects to reduce both shower time and water usage, unlike the other groups. ⋮ 6. The study ruled out priming effects as an explanation, since only the hypocrisy group showed consistently reduced shower times, supporting the dissonance explanation. ⋮ 7. Long-term effects of dissonance could provide a cost-effective strategy for promoting conservation behavior through personal accountability interventions. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section covers the study’s findings, emphasizing cognitive dissonance as the primary driver behind observed water conservation behaviors. (1. 10:43; 2. 10:44; 3. 10:46; 4. Practice Exercise 9: attitude surveys Please indicate your degree of agreement or disagreement with each of the following statements according to the following scale: 1-Strongly disagree. 2-Mildly disagree. 3-Mildly agree. 4-Strongly agree A. Attitude Survey ← Students will speak out more during a lecture if they have read the assigned reading. ← Wearing a seatbelt significantly reduces the chance of suffering a serious injury in a car accident. ← Homelessness is a serious social problem that needs attention. ← Engaging in regular physical exercise several times a week promotes good health. ← Recycling is a great way to protect the environment. ← Designating a non-drinking driver can reduce the chance of being in an alcohol-related accident. B. Behaviour Survey ← I always read the assigned materials before class. ← I regularly use a seatbelt to prevent my chances of suffering major injuries. ← Within the past year, I have personally done something to address the problem of homelessness. ← I take time to engage in regular physical exercise several times a week. ← I habitually recycle to protect the environment. Unit 3: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination Unit 3: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination LO3. Describe the factors leading to prejudice. Factors Leading to Prejudice ⋮ 1. Prejudice arises from realistic conflict theory, where competition for scarce resources fosters hostility between groups, as seen in List 7 learning objectives (60) Myers, V. (2014, November). How to overcome our biases? (61) Read Topic 1: Prejudice and Discrimination (61) Practice Exercise 1 (63) Practice Exercise 2 (64) Read Topic 2: Stereotypes (64) Practice Exercise 3 (65) “Jigsaw groups and the desegregated classroom" A&A (Reading 24) (67) Practice Exercise 4 (69) I Practice Exercise 5 (75) l List heading of Chapter 6 of Branscombe & Baron (61) e List reading 25 from Aronson & Aronson (61) a r competition for jobs or housing. ⋮ 2. Social categorization divides people into in-groups and out-groups, with individuals enhancing their self-esteem by identifying with a perceived superior group. ⋮ 3. Prejudiced attitudes are often learned from parents, peers, teachers, and media, reinforcing negative stereotypes and biased behaviours. ⋮ 4. The illusion of out-group homogeneity occurs due to limited familiarity with out-group members, making them appear less diverse and more similar than in-group members. ⋮ 5. Attribution errors, like illusory correlations, link negative behaviours to out-group members, perpetuating stereotypes and prejudices. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include examples. This section highlights cognitive, social, and learned components of prejudice development. (1. 63:1; 2. 63:2; 3. 64:1; 4. 66:1; 5. 66:2) Examples of intergroup conflict and specific attribution errors were omitted. LO4. Describe how Sherif first created and later reduced prejudice in the classic Robber’s Cave study. n Sherif’s Robber’s Cave Study ⋮ 1. Sherif first created prejudice by fostering competition 1. Describe how inequality is perceived by different groups. How Inequality Is Perceived by Different Groups ⋮ 1. Members of high-status groups tend to perceive less inequality than members of low-status groups because they frame loss of privilege. ⋮ 2. According to prospect theory, between two groups of boys at a summer camp, where they competed for scarce rewards, escalating intergroup hostility. ⋮ 2. The competition led to ingroup-outgroup divisions, including negative stereotyping, name-calling, and acts of aggression between the groups. ⋮ 3. Prejudice was reduced by introducing superordinate goals, tasks that required cooperation between the groups to achieve shared outcomes, such as fixing a broken water supply. ⋮ 4. Success in completing the superordinate tasks fostered positive intergroup interactions, reducing hostility and promoting mutual respect. ⋮ 5. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of structured interdependence in reducing prejudice by creating situations where cooperation outweighed competition. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 2 new terms, no tables or figures. This section highlights the use of competition to create prejudice and cooperation to reduce it. (1. 63:1; 2. 63:2; 3. 63:3; 4. 63:4; 5. 64:1) Details about the specific superordinate tasks used in the study were omitted. social progress as a potential individuals weigh potential losses more heavily than equivalent potential gains, making high-status groups more resistant to change perceived as threatening their advantages. ⋮ 3. White Americans often perceive more progress toward racial equality than Black Americans due to framing equality as white losses, which intensifies the perception of change. ⋮ 4. Studies indicate that focusing on “white losses” amplifies perceptions of progress and reduces support for policies like affirmative action, compared to focusing on “minority gains” alone. ⋮ 5. The election of Barack Obama reduced perceived need for racial progress among white Americans, as it was framed as evidence of substantial progress, undermining support for further equality policies. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section explores how framing influences perceived progress and the role of high- and low-status group perspectives. (1. 187:1-2; 2. 188:3; 3. 188:4-5; 4. 189:2-3; 5. 189:5) Information on detailed examples of affirmative action LO5. Describe the relationships between prejudice and discrimination. 1. Prejudice is an attitude consisting of beliefs and emotional responses toward a group, while discrimination is a behaviour that acts on those prejudices. ⋮ 2. Prejudiced individuals may hold negative attitudes without acting on them, while others may engage LO2. Describe the formation and nature of stereotypes. Formation and Nature of Stereotypes ⋮ 1. Stereotypes are cognitive frameworks in discriminatory behaviour even without prejudiced attitudes, often due to social pressures or institutional norms. ⋮ 3. Prejudice distorts information processing, making individuals more likely to perceive and remember negative characteristics about an out- group, reinforcing discriminatory actions. ⋮ 4. Discrimination can occur explicitly, as in overt exclusion, or implicitly, influenced by unconscious biases that guide behaviour consisting of beliefs about what members of a group are like, including traits, physical appearance, abilities, and behaviours. ⋮ 2. Stereotypes can be positive or negative, without awareness. ⋮ 5. Social norms and contexts influence whether prejudice translates into discrimination, with some refraining from acting due to social unacceptability of overt discrimination. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This section explores the distinction between attitudes and behaviours, their interplay, and external moderating factors. (1. 62:1; 2. 62:2; 3. 62:3; accurate or inaccurate, and may be either accepted or rejected by members of the stereotyped group. ⋮ 3. The cognitive component of attitudes, stereotypes simplify perceptions of groups by categorizing individuals as members of an in-group or out- group, often exaggerating similarities within the group and differences with others. ⋮ 4. Stereotypes persist because confirming evidence is remembered, while disconfirming evidence is ignored or reframed as exceptions. ⋮ 5. Illusory correlations, where rare behaviours by out-group members are linked to their group identity, reinforce stereotypes and foster out-group homogeneity. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 2 new terms, no tables or figures. This section outlines stereotypes as cognitive simplifications, their persistence, and their effects. (1. 191:1; 2. 192:1; 3. 192:2; 4. Unit 3: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination LO6. Describe several techniques for reducing prejudice. The Origins of Prejudice Techniques for Reducing Prejudice ⋮ 1. Equal status contact, as outlined by Allport, reduces prejudice when groups interact under conditions of equal status, pursuing common goals, with institutional support. 1. Realistic-conflict theory suggests prejudice arises from competition for scarce resources, with groups perceiving themselves as more deserving and escalating ⋮ 2. Structured interdependence, such as the hostility. ⋮ 2. Social categorization divides people into in-groups and out-groups based jigsaw classroom method, fosters cooperation by assigning individuals unique roles within a group, requiring mutual collaboration to succeed. ⋮ 3. Recategorization shifts group boundaries by emphasizing shared identities or creating a superordinate group, reducing the salience of in-group/out-group divisions. ⋮ 4. Perspective-taking, which involves imagining the experiences of out-group members, enhances empathy and on visible attributes, with individuals boosting self-esteem by identifying with the superior in-group. ⋮ 3. Prejudiced attitudes are often learned from interactions with parents, peers, media, and role models, reinforcing biases over time. || Debrief: 3 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This section explores theories explaining prejudice, including competition for resources, self-esteem through group identity, and learning from social interactions. (1. 63:2; 2. 63:4; 3. 64:1) Specific examples of group conflicts were omitted. reduces stereotyping. ⋮ 5. Training interventions, like implicit bias training, raise awareness of unconscious biases and provide strategies to mitigate their influence on behaviour. ⋮ 6. Positive intergroup contact, such as cooperative activities or cross-group Practice Exercise 1 friendships, builds trust and reduces intergroup anxiety over time. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include examples or figures. This section covers strategies for reducing prejudice through contact, education, and What information and resources do employers need in order to fairly evaluate potential job applicants? What personal information could be omitted? LO7. Describe the effects of sexism on women’s career success. Effects of Sexism on Women’s Career Success ⋮ 1. Hostile sexism includes overt negative attitudes that discourage women’s participation in traditionally male-dominated fields, limiting career opportunities. ⋮ 2. Benevolent sexism reinforces traditional gender roles by portraying women as needing protection, subtly undermining perceptions of their competence and leadership ability. ⋮ 3. Women subjected to stereotype threat may experience anxiety in high-stakes environments, negatively affecting performance and career advancement. ⋮ 4. Gender bias in hiring, evaluations, and promotions leads to fewer leadership opportunities and contributes to persistent wage gaps. ⋮ 5. Workplace cultures that ignore microaggressions create environments where women feel undervalued, reducing career satisfaction and increasing attrition. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This section explores how hostile and benevolent sexism, stereotype threat, and workplace bias collectively hinder women’s career success. (1. 191:1; 2. 191:2; 3. 192:3; 4. 193:3; 5. 193:4) Specific examples of industries and Attribution and Prejudice Defining the Terms 1. Implicit biases operate outside conscious awareness, 1. Prejudice is an attitude containing two components: information and evaluation, which may include inaccurate beliefs, and affect, or emotional dislike, directed solely at members of an out-group. ⋮ 2. Discrimination is the behavioural manifestation of influencing behaviour at individual, community, and national levels. ⋮ 2. Thorsen and West argue that implicit biases are insidious, affecting interactions in settings such as policing and business due to their unconscious nature. || Debrief: 2 flashcards, 2 new terms, no tables or figures. This section discusses implicit biases as unconscious influences on behaviour, referencing Thorsen and West’s argument about their pervasive effects. (1. 64:3; 2. 64:4) Practical examples of implicit bias in specific settings were omitted. prejudice and may occur even if a person does not hold prejudiced views. Conversely, one may have prejudiced attitudes but refrain from discriminatory actions due to social norms. ⋮ 3. A cognitive miser with prejudice uses it to simplify perception, cognition, affect, and memory, facilitating the perception of negative information about out-groups while ignoring contradictions. ⋮ 4. Attitude and behaviour are not perfectly correlated: A person may discriminate without holding prejudices, as in cases of following orders, or hold prejudices but avoid overt discrimination for social acceptability. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 4 new terms, no tables or figures. This section defines prejudice as an attitude and discrimination as a behaviour while highlighting their cognitive and behavioural implications. (1. 61:5; 2. 62:1; 3. 62:3; 4. 62:5) Examples of specific discriminatory practices were Practice Exercise 2 Visit Harvard University’s Project Implicit and try a couple of the demonstration tests (note you can do so as a guest). Unit 3: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination Topic 2: Stereotypes Illusions that Contribute to Stereotyping 1. Stereotypes are cognitive scaffolds that oversimplify by assuming all group members 1. Illusory correlation links two extraordinary events that occur close together, are alike, appealing to the cognitive miser for efficiency. ⋮ 2. Stereotypes persist creating a perception of causation or association. falsely ⋮ 2. The illusion of out-group because consistent information is attended to and remembered, while disconfirming homogeneity arises from unfamiliarity, leading to perceptions that out-group members evidence is ignored or reframed as exceptions. ⋮ 3. Illusory correlation occurs when two extraordinary events appear close together in time or space, creating a false relationship between them. ⋮ 4. The illusion of out-group homogeneity results from a lack of familiarity, leading to perceptions that out-group members are less varied than in-group members. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 4 new terms, no tables or figures. This section explores how stereotypes simplify cognition, persist through selective attention, and are reinforced by cognitive illusions such as illusory correlation and out-group homogeneity. are less varied than in-group members. ⋮ 3. Tokenism involves performing visible but (1. 64:5; 2. 65:1; 3. 65:3; 4. 65:4) Specific examples of stereotypes and their effects were omitted. trivial non-discriminatory acts to obscure larger patterns of discrimination. ⋮ 4. Reverse discrimination occurs when out-group members are treated more favourably to compensate for prejudice, allowing biased individuals to maintain self-concepts as fair. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 4 new terms, no tables or figures. This section discusses illusions that sustain stereotypes, including illusory correlation and out-group homogeneity, as well as subtle discriminatory practices like tokenism and reverse discrimination. (1. 65:3; 2. 65:4; 3. 66:2; 4. 66:4) Specific examples of tokenism and reverse discrimination were omitted. Practice Exercise 3 Tokenism and Reverse Discrimination Think about any stereotypes that you might hold. For example, you might try thinking of adjectives that you would use to describe groups of people, such as men, women, the elderly, obese people, single people, teenagers, people of specific ethnicities, etc. Ask yourself whether you attend to and process information differently about that 1. Tokenism involves trivial, disguise broader discriminatory practices. ⋮ 2. Reverse discrimination compensates for prejudice by treating out-group members better than in-group members, preserving a self-image of fairness. ⋮ 3. Both tokenism and reverse discrimination serve as disguises stereotyped group than you might if you knew nothing about that group and did not hold any stereotypes about them? What information do you tend to ignore that fails to support your stereotype? How could you reduce your tendency to use stereotypes? visible non-discriminatory acts toward out-group members to for underlying prejudice and do not address systemic issues. || Debrief: 3 flashcards, 2 new terms, no tables or figures. This section defines tokenism and reverse discrimination as mechanisms that obscure underlying discrimination while maintaining self-concepts of fairness. (1. 66:2; 2. 66:4; 3. 66:6) Specific examples of tokenism or reverse discrimination were omitted for brevity. Reducing Prejudice 1. Increased contact between groups can reduce prejudice by providing more information and breaking down stereotypes, and common goals. but only when groups have equal status ⋮ 2. Shared objectives, such as working toward a common goal, can reduce prejudice by promoting cooperation instead of competition. ⋮ 3. Teaching egalitarianism through deliberate education fosters appreciation for multicultural and linguistic diversity. ⋮ 4. Recategorization redraws boundaries to include both in-group and out-group members, fostering shared identity, such as soldiers viewing themselves as comrades rather than separate groups. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 4 new terms, no tables or figures. This section outlines strategies for reducing prejudice, focusing on increased contact, shared goals, teaching egalitarianism, and recategorization. (1. 67:2; 2. 67:3; 3. 67:5; 4. 67:6) Specific examples of implementation were omitted. 24. Jigsaw Groups... 1. The desegregated classroom often fails to produce expected positive outcomes because of overemphasis on competition rather than interdependence among students. ⋮ 2. In 1954, the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education ruling declared that separate but equal facilities are psychologically damaging and inherently imply minority inferiority. ⋮ 3. Early expectations of desegregation included reducing prejudice, increasing self-esteem, and improving academic performance among minority groups. ⋮ 4. Social psychologists noted that the benefits of desegregation depend on equal status contact in the pursuit of common goals, sanctioned by authority, and fostering perceptions of common humanity. || Debrief: 4 flashcards, 3 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section discusses the challenges and prerequisites for achieving positive outcomes in desegregated classrooms. (1. 1:1; 2. 2:1; 3. 2:3; 4. 3:2) Specific examples of implementation challenges were omitted. Unit 3: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination THE EFFECTS OF DESEGREGATION UNDERLYING MECHANISMS project show that desegregation often fails to increase integration, with children clustering by ethnicity and showing persistent anxiety. ⋮ 2. Research indicates desegregation rarely improves self-esteem in minority students and may even decrease it in 25% of cases, while white prejudice was reduced in only 13% of school systems. ⋮ 3. Positive outcomes from desegregation rely on sanction by authority, which facilitates smoother transitions but does not guarantee reductions in prejudice or improvements in self-esteem. ⋮ 4. Equal status in desegregated schools can be undermined by teacher biases, prior educational disparities, and language highlights that existing biases and dominance expectations can persist even 1. Longitudinal studies like the Riverside barriers, which lower perceived status among peers. ⋮ 5. Cohen’s expectation theory in cooperative environments, requiring strategies like temporary role reversals to promote equal status. ⋮ 6. In competitive learning environments, pre-existing inequalities are amplified, fostering a perception of peers as competitors rather than collaborators, which exacerbates prejudice. ⋮ 7. Sherif’s Robber’s Cave experiment demonstrated that competition fosters hostility, while cooperative efforts on shared goals significantly reduce intergroup conflict. ⋮ 8. The jigsaw classroom technique, developed by Aronson, uses interdependent learning to improve self-esteem, performance, and intergroup relations by fostering collaboration instead of competition. || Debrief: 8 flashcards, 6 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section examines the mixed outcomes of desegregation and highlights the critical roles of authority, equal status, and cooperative goals in reducing prejudice. (1. 4:1; 2. 4:3; 3. 5:1; 4. 5:3; 5. 6:2; 6. 6:5; 7. 7:1; 8. 8:3) 1. The jigsaw method increases student participation, requiring active involvement and which enhances interest, self-esteem, and academic performance. ⋮ 2. In Blaney et al. (1977), Mexican-American students showed less liking for school in jigsaw classrooms due to language-related anxiety, which diminished when classrooms had a Latino majority. ⋮ 3. Jigsaw learning fosters empathic role-taking, as students must understand others’ perspectives to share and teach information effectively, enhancing interpersonal understanding. ⋮ 4. Bridgeman (1981) found that students in jigsaw groups performed better on perspective-taking tasks, such as recognizing that bystanders lack contextual knowledge about events. ⋮ 5. Cooperative settings encourage shared attributions, where students credit success and failure to situational factors rather than individuals, reducing competitive biases. reducing anxiety, ⋮ 6. Interdependent learning improves self-esteem by enhancing academic performance and promoting peer respect, creating a two-way causal relationship. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 4 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section explores mechanisms through which jigsaw classrooms enhance participation, empathy, and intergroup relations, with a focus on role-taking and attribution changes. (1. 10:3; 2. 11:1; 3. 11:3; 4. 12:1; 5. 13:1; 6. 13:3) Omitted technical details about the OTHER COOPERATIVE TECHNIQUES 1. Cook (1978) found that interracial cooperative groups improve attitudes toward EXPERIMENTS IN THE CLASSROOM 1. The first experiment on the jigsaw classroom was conducted by Blaney et al. (1977) in Austin, Texas, where racial tensions were high following desegregation. ⋮ 2. In Blaney’s study, 10 fifth-grade classrooms used the jigsaw method for 45 minutes daily, three days per week over six weeks, while three control classrooms used traditional teaching. ⋮ 3. Students in jigsaw groups showed increased self-esteem, improved intergroup liking, and higher satisfaction with school compared to control classrooms. ⋮ 4. Geffner’s study (1978) in Watsonville, California, confirmed these findings, showing reduced ethnic stereotypes, increased self-esteem, and greater interethnic liking in students by over 7 percentage points in just two weeks. ⋮ 6. improved cross-ethnic friendships, and greater academic motivation in cooperative classrooms. ⋮ 3. Techniques like Teams Games and Tournaments (TGT) and Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD) combine within-group cooperation with between- group competition, showing increased sociometric cross-racial friendships and improved learning among minorities. ⋮ 4. In TGT and STAD, students compete across teams but individual paired with group members but show limited generalization to broader racial groups. ⋮ 2. Johnson and Johnson’s Learning Together model demonstrates higher self-esteem, rely on intra-team collaboration, fostering both cooperation and competition. ⋮ 5. Research highlights that structured cooperative activities, even when competitive elements, significantly enhance intergroup relations and academic outcomes. ⋮ 6. While the jigsaw method minimizes competition, TGT and STAD incorporate competition across teams, showing that both approaches yield similar jigsaw classrooms. ⋮ 5. Lucker et al. (1977) found that minority students’ academic performance improved significantly in jigsaw classrooms, narrowing the gap with Anglo The jigsaw method demonstrated equal benefits for students with high and low abilities, with no beneficial outcomes for prejudice reduction. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 3 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section explores alternative cooperative learning techniques and their effects on prejudice reduction, intergroup relations, and academic success. (1. 14:1; 2. 14:3; 3. 15:2; 4. 15:3; 5. 16:1; 6. 16:3) Details on statistical outcomes and specific disadvantage to high-ability learners. ⋮ 7. A key goal of the jigsaw classroom is to replace competition with structured cooperation, fostering mutual reliance among students to achieve academic success. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section highlights the effectiveness of the jigsaw classroom in improving academic performance, reducing prejudice, and enhancing intergroup relations in diverse classroom settings. (1. 8:1; 2. 8:2; 3. 8:3; 4. 9:1; 5. 9:3; 6. 9:4; 7. 10:2) Details on the Sexism 1. Sexism refers to social, occupational, economic, and political discrimination against women, which persists globally despite legal protections. ⋮ 2. In Canada, women’s hourly wages are 87% of men’s, reflecting a persistent gender wage gap despite progress since the 1980s. ⋮ 3. Stereotypes of women often portray them as passive, weak, and emotional, but may also emphasize positive attributes like excelling at relationships and caregiving. ⋮ 4. Gender prejudice affects women’s access to executive and managerial jobs, which are stereotypically associated with masculine traits like confidence and decisiveness. ⋮ 5. Women with lower expectations of career success and self-confidence are more likely to attribute their achievements to external factors, further disadvantaging them. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 4 new terms, no tables or figures. This section discusses the persistence of sexism, the gender wage gap, stereotypes about women, and how these factors impact women’s career opportunities and self-perceptions. (1. 68:2; 2. 68:3; 3. 68:5; 4. 69:1; 5. 69:3) Specific examples of gender discrimination outside of Canada were Unit 3: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination Practice Exercise 4 Summary and Review In 1993, Kim Campbell became Canada’s first female prime minister, albeit briefly. Explain how a person who holds sexist views might attribute her success 1. Discriminatory treatment can arise from temporary group memberships (e.g., minimal criteria) or long-term memberships like ethnicity or gender. It varies in perceived legitimacy. ⋮ 2. Perceptions of discrimination differ by group: Whites view racial progress as loss; Blacks see it as gain. Risk aversion explains the greater psychological impact of losses over gains. ⋮ 3. Gender stereotypes associate women with warmth but low competence, while men are seen as the reverse. This creates barriers like the glass ceiling, where women face difficulty reaching high-status roles. ⋮ 4. Stereotypes lead to confirmation bias, where consistent information is noticed, and inconsistent data is Human Rights in Canada and Treatment of Aboriginal People 1. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees equality under the law without discrimination based on factors such as race, sex, or disability. ⋮ 2. The reinterpreted. Women appointed after crises face the glass cliff, with a higher risk of failure. ⋮ 5. Tokenism, or hiring a few individuals from a group, can maintain perceived fairness but harm tokens’ credibility. Those reporting discrimination risk negative evaluations. ⋮ 6. Singlism describes stereotyping and discrimination against single individuals, perpetuated by both single and married people, often seen as legitimate or Canadian Human Rights Act prohibits discrimination based on characteristics including unnoticed. ⋮ 7. Stereotypes can shift as group relations evolve. Exposure to women in race, age, sex, and family status. ⋮ 3. Aboriginal people in Canada have faced a long history of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, including the residential school system, which caused widespread trauma. ⋮ 4. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) documented the harms of residential schools and issued 94 Calls to Action to address and redress these injustices. ⋮ 5. The TRC emphasizes the need for government and agency collaboration to prevent further discrimination and promote reconciliation, a process still in progress. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms, no tables or figures. This section highlights Canadian legal protections against discrimination, the historical mistreatment of Aboriginal people, and ongoing efforts toward reconciliation through the TRC’s Calls to Action. (1. 69:2; 2. 69:3; 3. 70:2; 4. 70:4; 5. 70:5) Detailed nontraditional roles reduces agreement with traditional gender stereotypes. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 5 new terms, no figures or tables. This section summarizes key factors in stereotyping, discrimination, and prejudice. (1. 220:1; 2. 220:2; 3. 220:3; 4. 220:4; 5. 220:5; 6. 220:6; 7. 220:7) Omitted extended discussions on the theoretical origins of Chapter 6 Causes and Cures of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination Practice Exercise 5 Visit the TRC website and view the resources, including the calls to action. Relate your reading to the course material. Stereotypes and Prejudice in the Context of Residential Schools ⋮ 1. Stereotypes about Indigenous peoples were perpetuated by colonial powers to justify the residential school system, portraying them as “uncivilized” and in need of assimilation. ⋮ 2. Prejudice against Indigenous peoples was institutionalized through policies like the Indian Act, leading to systemic discrimination. ⋮ 3. The goal of residential schools was to “kill the Indian in the child,” reflecting extreme prejudice and a desire to erase Indigenous cultures. ⋮ 4. The forced removal of children was justified using the stereotype that Indigenous parenting was inferior or harmful. ⋮ 5. Residential schools created 25 Implicit Bias in Social Interactions, Katherine R. Thorson and Tessa V. West intergenerational trauma, perpetuating stereotypes of Indigenous peoples as socially and economically disadvantaged. ⋮ 6. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of outcomes of Canada (TRC) documented over 6,000 deaths of children, highlighting the extreme prejudice and systemic racism. ⋮ 7. Reconciliation involves dismantling stereotypes and addressing the prejudice that persists in Canadian society today. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new terms, may include tables and/or figures. This section explores how stereotypes and prejudice were used to justify residential schools and their lasting impacts. (1. History-TRC: 2; 2. History-TRC: 3; 3. History-TRC: 4; 4. History-TRC: 5; 5. How to overcome our biases? Unit 4: Liking, Love, & Other Close Relationships judged as more intelligent, sociable, and competent due to the “beautiful is good” stereotype. ⋮ 5. Across cultures and time periods, physical beauty is largely stable, Overview regarding which facial and body features are considered attractive. ⋮ 6. Cognitive (BIG) disregard occurs when people unconsciously filter out those they perceive as dissimilar or less attractive limiting social engagement with them. ⋮ 7. While beauty offers social advantages, attractive women may face negative stereotypes, such as being perceived as vain, manipulative, or unqualified in professional settings. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new terms. (1. 229:3; 2. 230:1; 3. 230:2; 4. 231:2; 5. 231:4; 6. 231:5; 7. 231:6) No relevant content was omitted. List 4 learning objectives (71) Topic 1: The Development of Liking (72) Practice Exercise 1 (73) Making Friends (74) Practice Exercise 2 (75) Similarity and Reciprocal Positive Evaluations (76) Sex Di!erences in Selectivity Practice Exercise 3: list Readings About the Social Animal: Reading 30 (77) Topic 2: What Do People Want? (78) Practice Exercise 4 (78) Evolutionary Theory and Mate Choice (79) Other Close Relationships (80) List Readings About the Social Animal: Readings 28 (80) Practice Exercise 5 (81) List Branscombe & Baron (2017), Social Psychology: Chapter 7 (71) Fry, H. (2014, April). The mathematics of love Milan & Milan: A queer vision of love and marriage LO3. Describe the factors that lead to like and dislike of others. 1. The need for affiliation drives people to seek social interactions, but individuals vary in their level of social motivation. ⋮ 2. Positive affect increases liking, while negative affect decreases it, even when mood is unrelated to the person being evaluated. ⋮ 3. Classical conditioning influences attraction when a person becomes associated with positive or negative emotions, shaping future interactions. ⋮ 4. Similarity in attitudes, personality, and behavior fosters liking because it creates cognitive balance and consensual validation. ⋮ 5. Reciprocal liking occurs when people perceive that someone likes them, increasing their attraction in return. ⋮ 6. Social skills enhance attraction, as effective interpersonal behaviors make individuals more likable and capable of maintaining relationships. ⋮ 7. Cognitive disregard leads people to unconsciously filter out individuals who do not fit their perceived social preferences, limiting potential relationships. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new terms. (1. 225:2; 2. 227:2; 3. 227:3; 4. 229:4; 5. 229:5; 6. 230:3; 7. 231:5) No relevant content was omitted.. LO4. Describe families, and close relationships formed with friends romantic partners, LO1. Describe how basic needs, motives, and emotions cause us to like others. 1. Close relationships are long-term social bonds that provide emotional support, intimacy, and companionship, forming the foundation of social life. ⋮ 2. Romantic relationships involve passion, emotional connection, and commitment, evolving through 1. The need for affiliation is a fundamental human motivation that drives social connection and belonging. It is as essential to psychological well-being as hunger and thirst are to physical survival. ⋮ 2. People differ in their strength of affiliative needs, which attraction, deepening intimacy, and long-term bonding. ⋮ 3. Attachment theory explains how early caregiver interactions shape adult relationship styles, influencing security, trust, and emotional dependence. ⋮ 4. Family relationships are the first and most enduring close relationships, providing socialization, support, and a foundation for future interactions. ⋮ 5. Friendships, unlike family ties, are voluntary relationships that offer include seeking attention and emotional support, and these differences influence their social behaviors. ⋮ 3. The need to belong has evolutionary roots, as forming social bonds increased survival and reproductive success in ancestral environments. ⋮ 4. Social exclusion leads to distress, increased sensitivity to interpersonal cues, and impaired cognitive functioning, highlighting the fundamental importance of social emotional support, companionship, and shared interests across life stages. ⋮ 6. Reciprocity strengthens friendships, as mutual liking and shared experiences enhance relationship stability. ⋮ 7. Close relationships are dynamic and influenced by life connection. ⋮ 5. Positive emotions promote liking, while negative emotions lead to changes, personal development, and external factors, requiring maintenance and dislike. This effect can be direct, when the person causes the emotion, or indirect, when adaptation over time. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new terms. (1. 223:2; 2. 224:1; 3. 225:3; 4. 225:4; 5. 226:2; 6. 229:5; 7. unrelated events influence evaluations. ⋮ 6. Classical conditioning links people to emotions experienced in their presence. Meeting someone while happy leads to positive associations, while meeting someone during distress may create negative associations. ⋮ 7. The reinforcement-affect model suggests that behaviors followed by positive emotions are repeated, reinforcing attraction and social bonding. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new Topic 1: The Development of Liking and is influenced by attitudes, affect, 1. Interpersonal attraction refers to the extent to which we like or dislike another person ⋮ 2. Propinquity, or physical and behaviour. LO2. Explain how frequency of exposure and physical attractiveness lead to attraction. 1. Proximity increases the likelihood of interaction, making it a key determinant of attraction. Repeated encounters with a person enhance familiarity and increase liking. ⋮ 2. The repeated exposure effect occurs when frequent contact leads to a more favorable proximity, increases the likelihood of forming relationships because people repeatedly found in the physical environment. ⋮ 3. Propinquity can have negative effects when exposure parallels negative behaviour, a strong need for privacy, or a preference to complete tasks over socialize. ⋮ 4. People tend to like those who arouse positive emotions and dislike those who create negative feelings. ⋮ 5. Classical conditioning influences attraction associating positive or negative affect during a meeting. ⋮ 6. evaluation of a person, object, or idea, even when interactions are minimal. ⋮ 3. Research shows that repeated exposure leads to attraction by reducing uncertainty and increasing perceived responsiveness, making interactions feel more comfortable. ⋮ 4. Physical attractiveness influences social perception, with attractive individuals often Operant conditioning strengthens attraction: rewarding interactions are likely to be repeated, forming the basis of the reinforcement-affect model of interpersonal attraction. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 5 new terms. (1. 72:3; 2. 72:4; 3. 73:1; 4. 73:2; 5. 73:3; 6. 73:4) No relevant content was omitted. Unit 4: Liking, Love, & Other Close Relationships Practice exercise 1: response question 7.1: Internal Sources of Liking Others ⋮ Key Points Question: Suppose you are a man who moves into a new house in a new neighbourhood. Shortly after, a neighbour from the next block appears to ask whether she could borrow your lawnmower. A few days later, she calls on you again, this time to ask if you would like some rhubarb from her garden. She also mentioned that she’s divorced. What is going on here? ⋮ Answer: Her proximity to my house creates a sense of familiarity through repeated exposure. If such exposures do not occur with negative experiences, negative affect, or conflict with a competing desire (privacy or task completion) our social connection is being strengthened by our propinquity (repeated proximity). He sense of social connection encourages to call on me for a favour (borrowing the lawnmower). My response to her request is positive, having an rewarding effect (reinforcement-affect) so that she reciprocates the favour with more behaviour that will likely result in more reinforcement-affect and further positive developments to our social bond. ⋮ Score: 3/3 Interpersonal attraction (IA) refers to the evaluations we make of other Key Points. ⋮ 1. people—the positive and negative attitudes we form about them. ⋮ 2. All human beings have a need for affiliation, the motivation to interact with other people in a cooperative way. The strength of this need differs among individuals and across situations. People who claim they do not have this need show contrary evidence ⋮ 3. Positive and negative affect (moods and emotions) influence attraction both directly and indirectly. A direct effect occurs when the person we were interacting with is responsible for arousing an emotion in us. An associated effect, or indirect effect, occurs when the source of our emotional trigger is elsewhere, another person is present and thus associated with that emotion. ⋮ 4. The indirect (associated) effects of emotion are used by advertisers and politicians who understand that associating products and candidates with positive feelings can influence our purchasing and voting decisions. || Adapted from textbook. 7.2: External Sources of Attraction ⋮ key points Making friends Key Points ⋮ 1. The initial contact between two people is often based on proximity— nearness to each other in physical space. Proximity to others leads to more frequent 1. The need for affiliation is a biologically-based motive to seek interpersonal contact, though its strength varies among individuals. ⋮ 2. The need for affiliation includes learned first in interaction, which in turn often produces familiarity specific needs such as attention and emotional support. ⋮ 3. Social skills, the family and later refined, determine a person’s ability to fulfill affiliative needs and maintain relationships. ⋮ 4. Physical attractiveness significantly influences interpersonal perception, shaping how individuals are judged and treated. ⋮ 5. Cognitive disregard occurs when people unconsciously screen out others based on factors such as age, dress, race, or attractiveness to simplify their social world. ⋮ 6. Attractive people are and increased attraction (the repeated exposure effect). ⋮ 2. Social networks make it possible for people to interact and form initial feelings of liking or disliking without physical proximity. Use of social media sites can result in both positive and negative effects. On one hand, excessive comparison of ourselves to others may harm well-being if we perceive our friends as more successful than we are. On the other hand, a large social network can lead to a greater sense of social support, particularly when communications involve the sharing of emotional thoughts and feelings with others. ⋮ 3. Attraction toward others is often generally perceived as more sexually popular, successful, socially skilled, intelligent, strongly influenced by their observable characteristics, especially their physical and dominant; the first one is somewhat accurate, but the latter are no different from attractiveness. Research also offers support for the “love is blind” (LIB) suggestion: other people. ⋮ 7. Stereotypes about attractiveness have social consequences, such as Partners in romantic relationships tend to perceive each other as more attractive than the assumption that attractive women succeed by charming others rather than through people outside the relationship. ⋮ 4. We often assume that what is beautiful is good competence. ⋮ 8. Despite cultural variations in beauty standards, attractiveness is a stable and reliable characteristic, with general agreement across raters on who is attractive. || Debrief: 8 flashcards, 6 new terms. (1. 74:2; 2. 74:3; 3. 74:4; 4. 75:1; 5. 75:2; 6. 75:3; 7. 75:4; 8. 75:5) No relevant (BIG) apparently because we want to form relationships with attractive people. As a result, we may project positive interpersonal traits onto them. ⋮ 5. Red does indeed appear to be “sexy” and enhances women’s attractiveness, as many cultures have believed throughout recorded history. ⋮ 6. In addition to attractiveness, physique and weight are other observable characteristics that influence initial interpersonal Chapter 7 liking love and other close relationships 7.3: Sources of Liking Based on Social Interaction ⋮ Key Points Key Points. ⋮ 1. One of the many factors determining attraction toward another person is similarity to that individual in terms of attitudes, beliefs, values, and interests. ⋮ 2. Despite the continuing popularity of the idea that opposites attract (complementarity), that rarely seems to be true in the real world. ⋮ 3. The similarity–dissimilarity effect is seen when people respond positively to indications that another person is similar to them and negatively to indications that another person is dissimilar from themselves. The extent to which two individuals share the same ways of thinking or feeling is called attitude similarity. The larger the proportion of similarity, the greater the attraction. ⋮ 4. Most research supports the matching hypothesis—the view that we tend to choose romantic partners who are similar to ourselves in terms of physical attractiveness, even though we might prefer to have more attractive ones. ⋮ 5. Even trivial similarities (sharing the same first letter of a name) can increase our attraction to other individuals —an effect known as implicit egotism. ⋮ 6. Balance theory offers an explanation for why Unit 4: Liking, Love, & Other Close Relationships we like others who are similar to ourselves and dislike those who are different. Balance (liking plus agreement) results in a positive emotional state. Imbalance (liking plus Practice exercise 2: Response Questions disagreement) results in a negative state and a desire to restore balance. Nonbalance (disliking plus either agreement or disagreement) leads to indifference. ⋮ 7. People compare their attitudes and beliefs with others’ views as a means of self-evaluation when there is no objective “yardstick” available. That is, they engage in social comparison. We turn to others to obtain consensual validation, evidence that they share our views. ⋮ 8. Other factors that influence our liking for others are their social skills, how much they like Branscombe and Baron discuss the “beautiful is good” effect. Do you think there is a corresponding effect: “what is not beautiful is not good?” How would you test this prediction? us, and certain aspects of their personality such as narcissism. We may like narcissistic people at first because of their outgoing ways, but liking usually turns to dislike after we get to know them better. ⋮ 9. Of the “big five” broad aspects of personality, people high in agreeableness and extraversion receive higher ratings of interpersonal attractiveness. ⋮ 10. The traits we desire in other people typically vary depending on the type of relationship, the stage (or length) of the relationship, and our gender. | 7.4: close relationships ⋮ key points Key Points ⋮ 1. From a general standpoint, love is a combination of emotions, cognitions, and behaviors that play a crucial role in close relationships. Although love is hard to define, most would agree that it goes far beyond mere sexual or romantic attraction. ⋮ 2. The reproductive success of our ancient ancestors was enhanced not Similarity and Reciprocal Positive Evaluations only by sexual attraction between males and females but also by bonding between mates and between parents and their offspring. ⋮ 3. Sternberg’s triangular model of love includes three components of love: passion (physical attraction and sexual excitement), intimacy (emotional closeness), and decision/commitment (a cognitive decision to love and to be committed to a relationship). When all three angles of the triangle are equally strong and balanced, the result is consummate love. ⋮ 4. Passionate love—a sudden, overwhelming emotional response to another person—is just one kind of love. Companionate love resembles a very close friendship that includes caring, mutual liking, and respect. Unrequited love is love felt by one person for another who does not feel love in return. ⋮ 5. Jealousy is a powerful emotion that research indicates is often 1. People select friends based on similarity in attitudes, behaviour, personality, age, and possibly genes. ⋮ 2. Greater similarity leads to stronger attraction, as liking someone with opposing views creates cognitive imbalance that may motivate attitude change or similarity, even in non-visible traits such as blood type. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 5 new terms. (1. 76:1; 2. 76:2; 3. 76:3; 4. 76:4; 5. 76:5; 6. 76:6) No relevant content was omitted. rejection. ⋮ 3. We tend to like those who we perceive already like us, leading to reciprocal positive evaluations. ⋮ 4. Balance theory suggests that shared attitudes create a stable, symmetrical relationship that people are motivated to maintain. ⋮ 5. Consensual validation occurs when others share our opinions, reinforcing our belief that our views are correct. ⋮ 6. Research suggests friendships may be influenced by genetic triggered by threats to our self-esteem—threats arising when we fear that someone we love or care about will desert us for a rival. One factor that produces very strong jealousy is infidelity (adultery) on the part of the partner—either imagined or real. Secret relationships may be enticing, but the costs of forming them are high. ⋮ 6. The traits we desire in a romantic partner are influenced by gender preferences and by the future Sex differences in activity roles we expect our partner and ourselves to occupy. ⋮ 7. Our first relationships are 1. People choose partners with different goals in mind, ranging from long-term within the family where we acquire an attachment style. The two main components of an relationships to short-term or undefined connections. ⋮ 2. Evolutionary theory predicts attachment style are based on the levels of self-esteem and interpersonal trust. ⋮ 8. Attachment styles developed in the family influence the nature of other relationships, such as romantic partnerships and friendships. As a result, attachment styles play an important role in many life outcomes. The four main attachment styles are secure (high in both self-esteem and interpersonal trust), fearful-avoidant (low in both self-esteem and interpersonal trust), preoccupied (low self-esteem and high interpersonal trust), and dismissing (high self-esteem and low interpersonal trust). ⋮ 9. In addition to our parents, interactions with siblings and other relatives (grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins) are that the sex investing more in offspring 6. Finkel should be more selective in choosing a partner. ⋮ 3. Historically, women faced higher reproductive costs, including pregnancy, childbirth, and child-rearing, making selectivity in partner choice more critical. ⋮ 4. Reliable contraception and economic independence allow modern men and women greater choice in when to have children, but evolutionary preferences persist. ⋮ 5. Psychological mechanisms related to mate selection did not evolve in response to modern conditions, similar to how digestive systems did not adapt to high-fat, high-sugar diets. ⋮ and Eastwick’s research found that sex differences in selectivity depend on social important for the development of attitudes related to trust, affection, self-worth, competition, and humor. ⋮ 10. Friendships outside of the family often begin in childhood or adolescence and are initially based on proximity and parental friendships. With increasing maturity, it becomes possible to form close friendships that involve spending norms, particularly who initiates romantic contact. ⋮ 7. Their speed-dating study showed that women were more selective when men rotated, but when women rotated, men became more selective. ⋮ 8. The traditional norm of men initiating contact may shape perceptions of male versus female selectivity. ⋮ 9. Evolutionary theory predicts that more time together, interacting in many different situations, providing mutual social support, and engaging in self-disclosure. ⋮ 11. Some gender-related differences tend to women should be more cautious in selecting mates, while men should be more likely to initiate contact. || Debrief: 9 flashcards, 6 new terms. (1. 76:7; 2. 77:1; 3. 77:2; 4. 77:3; 5. 77:4; 6. 77:5; 7. 77:6; 8. 78:1; 9. exist in the formation of friendships. Women tend to place a greater emphasis on intimacy (sharing emotions and experiences), whereas men tend to form friendships based on activities (playing sports or working on projects). ⋮ 12. Although actual Unit 4: Liking, Love, & Other Close Relationships 30 Arbitrary Social Norms Influence Sex Differences... Topic 2: What Do People Want? speed-dating events where either men or women rotated. ⋮ 2. Rotators were significantly less selective than sitters, and when women rotated, the usual pattern of men being less selective disappeared. ⋮ 3. Increased self-confidence among rotators mediated the effect, suggesting that physically approaching a partner increases attraction. || Debrief: 3 flashcards, 2 new terms. (1.1; 2. 2; 3. 3) No relevant content was omitted. Romantic Selectivity ⋮ 1. Heterosexual women tend to be more selective than heterosexual men when choosing romantic partners. ⋮ 2. Online dating studies show men are 1.5 times more likely than women to send first-contact messages and browse twice the profiles. ⋮ 3. Men are more willing than women to date an attractive opposite- sex target in experiments using photographs and confederates. ⋮ 4. Speed-dating studies consistently find that men respond “yes” to a larger proportion of their partners than women do. ⋮ 5. Evolutionary explanations suggest that women’s greater parental investment makes them more selective due to the higher reproductive costs of poor mating decisions. ⋮ 6. The evolutionary view posits that female selectivity evolved as an adaptive mechanism to manage reproductive risks. ⋮ 7. Speed-dating research has historically confounded selectivity with gendered approach roles, as men typically rotate while women remain seated. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new terms. (1. 1; 2. 2; 3. 3; 4. 4; 5. 5; 6. 6; 7. 7) No relevant Arbitrary Social Norms Influence Sex Differences in Romantic Selectivity ⋮ 1. Men tend to be less selective than women in evaluating and pursuing romantic partners, a pattern that was tested using speed-dating would be less selective than sitters, experiencing greater romantic desire chemistry, and were less selective than sitters. ⋮ 2. The typical finding that men are less but disappeared when attractiveness, 1. People generally select romantic partners who are similar to themselves in physical avoiding those much more or less attractive unless compensating factors exist. ⋮ 2. The matching hypothesis states that individuals select partners with approximately equal social assets, such as attractiveness, age, fame, or wealth. ⋮ 3. Equity theory holds that partnerships are perceived as fair if partners gain as much from the relationship as they contribute. ⋮ 4. Evolutionary theory predicts that women should be more selective than men due to reproductive investment, with selectivity based on decision-making about relationship commitment. ⋮ 5. Age and stage of life influence partner selection, shaping what qualities people prioritize in a mate. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 3 new terms. (1-2. PSYC3611 78:3; 3. PSYC3611 78:4; 4-5. PSYC3611 79:1) Omitted speculative discussion on how people evaluate their feelings in mate selection. Practice Exercise 4: Response Question Hypotheses, Method, and Results ⋮ 1. Researchers hypothesized that rotators in Question: Make a list of all of the things you would want in a potential long-term partner and then rate the importance of each of them on a scale of 1 to 5, with “1” being “nice to have but not critical” and “5” being “absolutely essential.” Now do the same thing for a potential short-term partner. Are there any differences? Do you think people of the opposite sex, or of another gender identity, or another age or culture would have different lists? Why or why not? ⋮ and chemistry. ⋮ 2. The sex-moderation hypothesis predicted that men would be less selective when they approached, but this difference would diminish when women approached. ⋮ 3. A mediational hypothesis proposed that self-confidence would explain the effect of approaching versus being approached on romantic selectivity. ⋮ 4. The study included 350 undergraduates across 15 speed-dating events where either men (eight events) or women (seven events) rotated. ⋮ 5. Each participant went on approximately 12 four-minute dates and reported romantic desire, romantic chemistry, self-confidence, and willingness to see partners again. ⋮ 6. Multilevel modeling analysis showed rotators experienced greater romantic desire, chemistry, and said “yes” to a higher percentage of partners. ⋮ 7. The usual finding that men are less selective than women appeared only when men rotated, but the sex difference disappeared when women rotated. ⋮ 8. Mediation analysis confirmed that self-confidence explained the effect of rotation on selectivity, supporting an embodied-approach explanation over a scarcity explanation. || Debrief: 8 flashcards, 4 new terms. (1. Hypotheses:1; 2. Hypotheses:2; 3. Hypotheses:3; 4. Discussion ⋮ 1. Rotators in speed-dating experienced greater romantic desire, romantic selective than women was only observed when men rotated, Evolutionary Theory and Mate Choice women rotated. ⋮ 3. Self-confidence mediated the effect, supporting the embodied- approach explanation over the scarcity explanation. ⋮ 4. The study suggests that gendered social norms, such as men traditionally approaching women, influence observed sex differences in romantic selectivity. ⋮ 5. The findings imply that removing approach norms could reduce or eliminate the perception that women are more selective than men. ⋮ 6. The study highlights how even subtle gender norms, such as rotational speed-dating procedures, can shape romantic behaviors. ⋮ 7. Future research could examine whether long-term changes in approach norms lead to shifts in romantic selectivity patterns. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 2 new terms. (1. 1; 2. 2; 3. 3; 4. 4; 5. 5; 6. 6; 7. 7) No relevant content was 1. Evolutionary theory predicts that men and women seek partners who maximize survival. ⋮ 2. Men prefer younger women due to fertility factors, while women do not have an upper age limit reproductive success and genetic for partner selection. ⋮ 3. Physical indicators of fertility, such as smooth skin and firm breasts, are cross-culturally associated with attractiveness. ⋮ 4. The “half-your-age-plus-seven” rule in France reflects a cultural norm where men prefer partners younger than themselves. ⋮ 5. Research supports that men prioritize physical appearance more than women when selecting mates, independent of age, education, or economic status. ⋮ 6. While evolutionary theory predicts mate preferences, actual choices depend on available partners and conscious decision-making. || Debrief: 6 flashcards, 1 new term. (1-2. PSYC3611 79:2; 3. PSYC3611 79:3; 4. PSYC3611 79:4; 5. PSYC3611 80:1; 6. PSYC3611 80:2) Omitted extended discussion on the environmental constraints of mate selection Unit 4: Liking, Love, & Other Close Relationships Other Close Relationships response bias did not alter the observed relationships between attachment and achievement in achievement, while insecure attachment leads to anxiety and a focus on avoiding failure. ⋮ 11. Fear of failure and 1. The parent-child relationship is the first social relationship and forms an internal performance-avoidance goals are linked to performance anxiety, rigid thinking, and poor long- term outcomes. ⋮ 12. Avoidance motivation can lead to effort in the short term but results in working model for future relationships. ⋮ 2. Attachment theorists suggest that early relationship experiences shape expectations for consistency, warmth, and reliability in later relationships. ⋮ 3. Secure attachment in childhood is associated with greater stress and decreased interest over time. ⋮ 13. Attachment quality influences whether motivation is success-oriented or failure-avoidant. || Debrief: 13 flashcards, 6 new terms. (1. 28.0:1; 2. 28.0:2; 3. 28.0:3; 4. 28.0:4; 5. 28.0:5; 6. 28.0:6; 7. 28.0:7; 8. 28.0:8; 9. 28.0:9; 10. 28.0:10; 11. 28.0:11; 12. 28.0:12; 13. 28.0:13) Omitted general descriptions of research methodology and redundant explanations of avoidance motivation. Parental Love Withdrawal and Fear of Failure ⋮ 1. Elliot and Thrash studied whether success in adult relationships; insecure attachment may lead to difficulties. ⋮ 4. Elliot theorizes that adult achievement motivation is influenced by early attachment experiences, similar to infant exploration behavior. ⋮ 5. Correlational research on attachment and adult behavior cannot determine causation due to multiple influencing factors. || Debrief: 5 flashcards, 2 new terms. (1. PSYC3611 80:3; 2. PSYC3611 80:4; 3. PSYC3611 80:5; 4. PSYC3611 81:1; 5. PSYC3611 81:2) Omitted discussion on personal reflection questions avoidance-motivated parents pass avoidance motivation to their children. ⋮ 2. They examined and children completed assessments of fear of failure and achievement goals. ⋮ 4. Children whose parents withdrew love upon failure were more likely to develop fear of failure. ⋮ 5. Fear of failure in mothers led to love withdrawal, which increased fear of failure in their children. ⋮ 6. Fathers’ fear of failure did not predict love withdrawal, but when they withdrew love, it increased their child’s fear of failure. ⋮ 7. Parents with high fear of failure had children who 28 The Long Reach of the Social in “Social Animal” pursued performance-avoidance goals. ⋮ 8. Fathers with high fear of failure had children less Affiliation and Achievement Motivation ⋮ 1. Intrapersonal competence and high-stakes, leading children to prioritize avoiding failure over learning. ⋮ 10. Avoidance and connection contribute to fulfillment, interpersonal connection are basic needs that motivate human beings. ⋮ 2. Competence while incompetence and disconnection lead to distress. ⋮ 3. Psychological research supports the significance of these needs and their impact on daily striving and well-being. ⋮ 4. Competence-related motivation is studied under terms like effectance, efficacy, and achievement, while affiliation motivation is described as connection, belonging, and attachment. ⋮ 5. Research has extensively explored achievement and affiliation separately, but less is known about their interrelation. ⋮ 6. Attachment theory provides an exception by linking affiliation motivation with achievement motivation. ⋮ 7. The author will present research on the affiliation-achievement nexus based on attachment theory. || Debrief: 7 flashcards, 3 new terms. (1. 28.0:1; 2. 28.0:1; 3. 28.0:2; 4. 28.0:2; 5. 28.0:3; 6. 28.0:4; 7. 28.0:5) Omitted general statements about research depth and intuitive Attachment Theory and Exploration ⋮ 1. Attachment theory, developed by Bowlby, explains how parental socialization shapes child development. ⋮ 2. Infants exhibit behavior driven by two innate systems: the attachment system for safety and the exploration system for learning. ⋮ 3. A balance between attachment and exploration is essential for optimal development. ⋮ 4. Secure attachment results from consistently responsive parenting, fostering confidence in exploration. ⋮ 5. Insecure attachment arises from inconsistent or neglectful parenting, leading to anxiety or detachment in exploration. ⋮ 6. Attachment patterns persist into adulthood, influencing relationships and self-worth. ⋮ 7. Securely attached individuals feel unconditionally valued, while motivation. ⋮ 10. Secure attachment enables confidence whether love withdrawal is a mechanism for transmitting avoidance motivation. ⋮ 3. Parents likely to pursue mastery-approach goals. ⋮ 9. Love withdrawal makes achievement situations motivation is transmitted intergenerationally through socialization, not just genetics. ⋮ 11. Mothers high in fear of failure project self-worth contingencies onto their children, reinforcing avoidance motivation. ⋮ 12. Fathers use different socialization techniques, but love withdrawal still communicates performance-contingent worth. ⋮ 13. Love withdrawal can be overt or subtle, and children are highly attuned to perceived parental changes in affection. || Debrief: 13 flashcards, 5 new terms. (1. 28.0:1; 2. 28.0:2; 3. 28.0:3; 4. 28.0:4; 5. 28.0:5; 6. 28.0:6; 7. 28.0:7; 8. 28.0:8; 9. 28.0:9; 10. 28.0:10; 11. 28.0:11; Parental Closeness and Achievement Motivation ⋮ 1. University students carry motivational patterns shaped by parental socialization into college. ⋮ 2. Moller, Elliot, and to parents. ⋮ 3. Mastery-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals were measured in relation to exams. ⋮ 4. In one study, students with mastery-approach goals felt closer to their parents immediately after an exam. ⋮ 5. In another study, students with mastery-approach goals felt close to their parents after receiving exam feedback, regardless of performance. ⋮ 6. Students with performance-avoidance goals felt close to their parents if they performed well but distant closeness regardless of performance. ⋮ 9. Students with performance-avoidance goals Friedman examined how students’ achievement goals relate to their felt closeness if they performed poorly. ⋮ 7. Mastery-approach goals reflect secure attachment, while performance-avoidance goals reflect insecure attachment and fear of failure. ⋮ 8. Students with mastery-approach goals view their parents as a psychological secure base, maintaining perceive parental acceptance as contingent on avoiding failure. || Debrief: 9 flashcards, 3 new terms. (1. 28.0:1; 2. 28.0:2; 3. 28.0:3; 4. 28.0:4; 5. 28.0:5; 6. 28.0:6; 7. 28.0:7; 8. 28.0:8; 9. 28.0:9) Omitted methodological details on combining mother insecurely attached individuals experience anxiety, fear of rejection, or conditional self- 2. Achievement motivation research distinguishes between general worth. ⋮ 8. Most research on adult attachment has focused on interpersonal relationships rather than its role in achievement motivation. ⋮ 9. The author and colleagues investigated how adult attachment security influences achievement motives and goals. || Debrief: 9 flashcards, 5 new terms. (1. 28.0:1; 2. 28.0:2; 3. 28.0:3; 4. 28.0:4; 5. 28.0:5; 6. 28.0:6; 7. 28.0:6; 8. Attachment and Achievement Motivation ⋮ 1. Attachment theory states that infants have an innate drive to master challenges, but insecure attachment disrupts this drive. ⋮ achievement motives and specific achievement goals. ⋮ 3. The need for achievement reflects a desire while insecure attachment (anxious/ambivalent or avoidant) was linked to higher fear of failure. ⋮ 8. Securely attached students insecurely attached students pursued performance-avoidance goals. ⋮ 9. Controlling for Practice Exercise 5: response questions Question: Think about your own attachment to your parents. As a child, was it secure or insecure? How would you classify it now? What about relationships with siblings or other close relatives? Does it make sense to view them in terms of attachment? Describe your own internal working model of relationships. to succeed, while fear of failure reflects concern for repercussions. ⋮ 4. Mastery- approach goals focus on attaining excellence, while performance-avoidance goals focus on avoiding doing worse than others. ⋮ 5. Approach motivation involves striving for success, whereas avoidance motivation involves striving to avoid failure. ⋮ 6. Elliot and Reis studied links between attachment and achievement motivation in university students. ⋮ 7. Secure attachment was associated with higher need for achievement, pursued mastery-approach goals, while Unit 4: Liking, Love, & Other Close Relationships Fry: the mathematics of love A queer vision of love and marriage